Enable ruff RUF002 rule

backtracking/sudoku.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 """
-Given a partially filled 9×9 2D array, the objective is to fill a 9×9
+Given a partially filled 9x9 2D array, the objective is to fill a 9x9
 square grid with digits numbered 1 to 9, so that every row, column, and
-and each of the nine 3×3 sub-grids contains all of the digits.
+and each of the nine 3x3 sub-grids contains all of the digits.
 
 This can be solved using Backtracking and is similar to n-queens.
 We check to see if a cell is safe or not and recursively call the

bit_manipulation/single_bit_manipulation_operations.py

@@ -8,8 +8,8 @@ def set_bit(number: int, position: int) -> int:
     Set the bit at position to 1.
 
     Details: perform bitwise or for given number and X.
-    Where X is a number with all the bits – zeroes and bit on given
-    position – one.
+    Where X is a number with all the bits - zeroes and bit on given
+    position - one.
 
     >>> set_bit(0b1101, 1) # 0b1111
     15
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ def clear_bit(number: int, position: int) -> int:
     Set the bit at position to 0.
 
     Details: perform bitwise and for given number and X.
-    Where X is a number with all the bits – ones and bit on given
-    position – zero.
+    Where X is a number with all the bits - ones and bit on given
+    position - zero.
 
     >>> clear_bit(0b10010, 1) # 0b10000
     16
@@ -42,8 +42,8 @@ def flip_bit(number: int, position: int) -> int:
     Flip the bit at position.
 
     Details: perform bitwise xor for given number and X.
-    Where X is a number with all the bits – zeroes and bit on given
-    position – one.
+    Where X is a number with all the bits - zeroes and bit on given
+    position - one.
 
     >>> flip_bit(0b101, 1) # 0b111
     7
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ def get_bit(number: int, position: int) -> int:
     Get the bit at the given position
 
     Details: perform bitwise and for the given number and X,
-    Where X is a number with all the bits – zeroes and bit on given position – one.
+    Where X is a number with all the bits - zeroes and bit on given position - one.
     If the result is not equal to 0, then the bit on the given position is 1, else 0.
 
     >>> get_bit(0b1010, 0)

compression/burrows_wheeler.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 """
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrows%E2%80%93Wheeler_transform
 
-The Burrows–Wheeler transform (BWT, also called block-sorting compression)
+The Burrows-Wheeler transform (BWT, also called block-sorting compression)
 rearranges a character string into runs of similar characters. This is useful
 for compression, since it tends to be easy to compress a string that has runs
 of repeated characters by techniques such as move-to-front transform and

compression/lempel_ziv.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 """
-One of the several implementations of Lempel–Ziv–Welch compression algorithm
+One of the several implementations of Lempel-Ziv-Welch compression algorithm
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempel%E2%80%93Ziv%E2%80%93Welch
 """
 
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ def add_key_to_lexicon(
 
 def compress_data(data_bits: str) -> str:
     """
-    Compresses given data_bits using Lempel–Ziv–Welch compression algorithm
+    Compresses given data_bits using Lempel-Ziv-Welch compression algorithm
     and returns the result as a string
     """
     lexicon = {"0": "0", "1": "1"}

compression/lempel_ziv_decompress.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 """
-One of the several implementations of Lempel–Ziv–Welch decompression algorithm
+One of the several implementations of Lempel-Ziv-Welch decompression algorithm
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempel%E2%80%93Ziv%E2%80%93Welch
 """
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ def read_file_binary(file_path: str) -> str:
 
 def decompress_data(data_bits: str) -> str:
     """
-    Decompresses given data_bits using Lempel–Ziv–Welch compression algorithm
+    Decompresses given data_bits using Lempel-Ziv-Welch compression algorithm
     and returns the result as a string
     """
     lexicon = {"0": "0", "1": "1"}

data_structures/binary_tree/red_black_tree.py

@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ class RedBlackTree:
     and slower for reading in the average case, though, because they're
     both balanced binary search trees, both will get the same asymptotic
     performance.
-    To read more about them, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red–black_tree
+    To read more about them, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-black_tree
     Unless otherwise specified, all asymptotic runtimes are specified in
     terms of the size of the tree.
     """

digital_image_processing/edge_detection/canny.py

@@ -74,9 +74,9 @@ def detect_high_low_threshold(
     image_shape, destination, threshold_low, threshold_high, weak, strong
 ):
     """
-    High-Low threshold detection. If an edge pixel’s gradient value is higher
+    High-Low threshold detection. If an edge pixel's gradient value is higher
     than the high threshold value, it is marked as a strong edge pixel. If an
-    edge pixel’s gradient value is smaller than the high threshold value and
+    edge pixel's gradient value is smaller than the high threshold value and
     larger than the low threshold value, it is marked as a weak edge pixel. If
     an edge pixel's value is smaller than the low threshold value, it will be
     suppressed.

digital_image_processing/index_calculation.py

@@ -182,7 +182,7 @@ def arv12(self):
         Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index 2
         https://www.indexdatabase.de/db/i-single.php?id=396
         :return: index
-            −0.18+1.17*(self.nir−self.red)/(self.nir+self.red)
+            -0.18+1.17*(self.nir-self.red)/(self.nir+self.red)
         """
         return -0.18 + (1.17 * ((self.nir - self.red) / (self.nir + self.red)))
 

dynamic_programming/combination_sum_iv.py

@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
 The basic idea is to go over recursively to find the way such that the sum
 of chosen elements is “tar”. For every element, we have two choices
     1. Include the element in our set of chosen elements.
-    2. Don’t include the element in our set of chosen elements.
+    2. Don't include the element in our set of chosen elements.
 """
 
 

electronics/coulombs_law.py

@@ -20,8 +20,8 @@ def couloumbs_law(
 
     Reference
     ----------
-    Coulomb (1785) "Premier mémoire sur l’électricité et le magnétisme,"
-    Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, pp. 569–577.
+    Coulomb (1785) "Premier mémoire sur l'électricité et le magnétisme,"
+    Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, pp. 569-577.
 
     Parameters
     ----------

fuzzy_logic/fuzzy_operations.py

@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ class FuzzySet:
 
     # Union Operations
     >>> siya.union(sheru)
-    FuzzySet(name='Siya ∪ Sheru', left_boundary=0.4, peak=0.7, right_boundary=1.0)
+    FuzzySet(name='Siya U Sheru', left_boundary=0.4, peak=0.7, right_boundary=1.0)
     """
 
     name: str
@@ -147,10 +147,10 @@ def union(self, other) -> FuzzySet:
             FuzzySet: A new fuzzy set representing the union.
 
         >>> FuzzySet("a", 0.1, 0.2, 0.3).union(FuzzySet("b", 0.4, 0.5, 0.6))
-        FuzzySet(name='a ∪ b', left_boundary=0.1, peak=0.6, right_boundary=0.35)
+        FuzzySet(name='a U b', left_boundary=0.1, peak=0.6, right_boundary=0.35)
         """
         return FuzzySet(
-            f"{self.name} ∪ {other.name}",
+            f"{self.name} U {other.name}",
             min(self.left_boundary, other.left_boundary),
             max(self.right_boundary, other.right_boundary),
             (self.peak + other.peak) / 2,

hashes/fletcher16.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 """
 The Fletcher checksum is an algorithm for computing a position-dependent
-checksum devised by John G. Fletcher (1934–2012) at Lawrence Livermore Labs
+checksum devised by John G. Fletcher (1934-2012) at Lawrence Livermore Labs
 in the late 1970s.[1] The objective of the Fletcher checksum was to
 provide error-detection properties approaching those of a cyclic
 redundancy check but with the lower computational effort associated

linear_algebra/lu_decomposition.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 """
-Lower–upper (LU) decomposition factors a matrix as a product of a lower
+Lower-upper (LU) decomposition factors a matrix as a product of a lower
 triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix. A square matrix has an LU
 decomposition under the following conditions:
     - If the matrix is invertible, then it has an LU decomposition if and only

linear_algebra/src/schur_complement.py

@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ def schur_complement(
     the pseudo_inv argument.
 
     Link to Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schur_complement
-    See also Convex Optimization – Boyd and Vandenberghe, A.5.5
+    See also Convex Optimization - Boyd and Vandenberghe, A.5.5
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [2, 1]])
     >>> b = np.array([[0, 3], [3, 0]])

machine_learning/polynomial_regression.py

@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 
 β = (XᵀX)⁻¹Xᵀy = X⁺y
 
-where X is the design matrix, y is the response vector, and X⁺ denotes the Moore–Penrose
+where X is the design matrix, y is the response vector, and X⁺ denotes the Moore-Penrose
 pseudoinverse of X. In the case of polynomial regression, the design matrix is
 
     |1  x₁  x₁² ⋯ x₁ᵐ|
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ def fit(self, x_train: np.ndarray, y_train: np.ndarray) -> None:
 
         β = (XᵀX)⁻¹Xᵀy = X⁺y
 
-        where X⁺ denotes the Moore–Penrose pseudoinverse of the design matrix X. This
+        where X⁺ denotes the Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse of the design matrix X. This
         function computes X⁺ using singular value decomposition (SVD).
 
         References:

maths/chudnovsky_algorithm.py

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 def pi(precision: int) -> str:
     """
     The Chudnovsky algorithm is a fast method for calculating the digits of PI,
-    based on Ramanujan’s PI formulae.
+    based on Ramanujan's PI formulae.
 
     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chudnovsky_algorithm
 

maths/entropy.py

@@ -21,10 +21,10 @@ def calculate_prob(text: str) -> None:
     :return: Prints
     1) Entropy of information based on 1 alphabet
     2) Entropy of information based on couples of 2 alphabet
-    3) print Entropy of H(X n∣Xn−1)
+    3) print Entropy of H(X n|Xn-1)
 
     Text from random books. Also, random quotes.
-    >>> text = ("Behind Winston’s back the voice "
+    >>> text = ("Behind Winston's back the voice "
     ...         "from the telescreen was still "
     ...         "babbling and the overfulfilment")
     >>> calculate_prob(text)

maths/lucas_lehmer_primality_test.py

@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 """
-In mathematics, the Lucas–Lehmer test (LLT) is a primality test for Mersenne
+In mathematics, the Lucas-Lehmer test (LLT) is a primality test for Mersenne
 numbers.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%E2%80%93Lehmer_primality_test
 
 A Mersenne number is a number that is one less than a power of two.
 That is M_p = 2^p - 1
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime
 
-The Lucas–Lehmer test is the primality test used by the
+The Lucas-Lehmer test is the primality test used by the
 Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) to locate large primes.
 """
 

maths/modular_division.py

@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ def modular_division(a: int, b: int, n: int) -> int:
     GCD ( Greatest Common Divisor ) or HCF ( Highest Common Factor )
 
     Given three integers a, b, and n, such that gcd(a,n)=1 and n>1, the algorithm should
-    return an integer x such that 0≤x≤n−1, and  b/a=x(modn) (that is, b=ax(modn)).
+    return an integer x such that 0≤x≤n-1, and  b/a=x(modn) (that is, b=ax(modn)).
 
     Theorem:
     a has a multiplicative inverse modulo n iff gcd(a,n) = 1

maths/numerical_analysis/bisection_2.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 """
-Given a function on floating number f(x) and two floating numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ such that
+Given a function on floating number f(x) and two floating numbers `a` and `b` such that
 f(a) * f(b) < 0 and f(x) is continuous in [a, b].
 Here f(x) represents algebraic or transcendental equation.
 Find root of function in interval [a, b] (Or find a value of x such that f(x) is 0)

maths/numerical_analysis/nevilles_method.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 """
 Python program to show how to interpolate and evaluate a polynomial
 using Neville's method.
-Neville’s method evaluates a polynomial that passes through a
+Neville's method evaluates a polynomial that passes through a
 given set of x and y points for a particular x value (x0) using the
 Newton polynomial form.
 Reference:

maths/simultaneous_linear_equation_solver.py

@@ -2,10 +2,10 @@
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_matrix
 
 This algorithm solves simultaneous linear equations of the form
-λa + λb + λc + λd + ... = γ as [λ, λ, λ, λ, ..., γ]
-Where λ & γ are individual coefficients, the no. of equations = no. of coefficients - 1
+λa + λb + λc + λd + ... = y as [λ, λ, λ, λ, ..., y]
+Where λ & y are individual coefficients, the no. of equations = no. of coefficients - 1
 
-Note in order to work there must exist 1 equation where all instances of λ and γ != 0
+Note in order to work there must exist 1 equation where all instances of λ and y != 0
 """
 
 

matrix/largest_square_area_in_matrix.py

@@ -31,15 +31,15 @@
 
 Approach:
 We initialize another matrix (dp) with the same dimensions
-as the original one initialized with all 0’s.
+as the original one initialized with all 0's.
 
 dp_array(i,j) represents the side length of the maximum square whose
 bottom right corner is the cell with index (i,j) in the original matrix.
 
 Starting from index (0,0), for every 1 found in the original matrix,
 we update the value of the current element as
 
-dp_array(i,j)=dp_array(dp(i−1,j),dp_array(i−1,j−1),dp_array(i,j−1)) + 1.
+dp_array(i,j)=dp_array(dp(i-1,j),dp_array(i-1,j-1),dp_array(i,j-1)) + 1.
 """
 
 

matrix/spiral_print.py

@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ def spiral_traversal(matrix: list[list]) -> list[int]:
     Algorithm:
         Step 1. first pop the 0 index list. (which is [1,2,3,4] and concatenate the
                 output of [step 2])
-        Step 2. Now perform matrix’s Transpose operation (Change rows to column
+        Step 2. Now perform matrix's Transpose operation (Change rows to column
                 and vice versa) and reverse the resultant matrix.
         Step 3. Pass the output of [2nd step], to same recursive function till
                 base case hits.

neural_network/back_propagation_neural_network.py

@@ -2,10 +2,10 @@
 
 """
 
-A Framework of Back Propagation Neural Network（BP） model
+A Framework of Back Propagation Neural Network (BP) model
 
 Easy to use:
-    * add many layers as you want ！！！
+    * add many layers as you want ! ! !
     * clearly see how the loss decreasing
 Easy to expand:
     * more activation functions

other/davis_putnam_logemann_loveland.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python3
 
 """
-Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland (DPLL) algorithm is a complete, backtracking-based
+Davis-Putnam-Logemann-Loveland (DPLL) algorithm is a complete, backtracking-based
 search algorithm for deciding the satisfiability of propositional logic formulae in
 conjunctive normal form, i.e, for solving the Conjunctive Normal Form SATisfiability
 (CNF-SAT) problem.

other/fischer_yates_shuffle.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 #!/usr/bin/python
 """
-The Fisher–Yates shuffle is an algorithm for generating a random permutation of a
+The Fisher-Yates shuffle is an algorithm for generating a random permutation of a
 finite sequence.
 For more details visit
 wikipedia/Fischer-Yates-Shuffle.

physics/archimedes_principle_of_buoyant_force.py

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 fluid.  This principle was discovered by the Greek mathematician Archimedes.
 
 Equation for calculating buoyant force:
-Fb = ρ * V * g
+Fb = p * V * g
 
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle
 """

physics/center_of_mass.py

@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@
 is the particle equivalent of a given object for the application of Newton's laws of
 motion.
 
-In the case of a system of particles P_i, i = 1, ..., n , each with mass m_i that are
-located in space with coordinates r_i, i = 1, ..., n , the coordinates R of the center
+In the case of a system of particles P_i, i = 1, ..., n , each with mass m_i that are
+located in space with coordinates r_i, i = 1, ..., n , the coordinates R of the center
 of mass corresponds to:
 
 R = (Σ(mi * ri) / Σ(mi))
@@ -36,8 +36,8 @@ def center_of_mass(particles: list[Particle]) -> Coord3D:
     Input Parameters
     ----------------
     particles: list(Particle):
-    A list of particles where each particle is a tuple with it´s (x, y, z) position and
-    it´s mass.
+    A list of particles where each particle is a tuple with it's (x, y, z) position and
+    it's mass.
 
     Returns
     -------

physics/centripetal_force.py

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 The unit of centripetal force is newton.
 
 The centripetal force is always directed perpendicular to the
-direction of the object’s displacement. Using Newton’s second
+direction of the object's displacement. Using Newton's second
 law of motion, it is found that the centripetal force of an object
 moving in a circular path always acts towards the centre of the circle.
 The Centripetal Force Formula is given as the product of mass (in kg)