pytables.py

"""
High level interface to PyTables for reading and writing pandas data structures
to disk
"""

# pylint: disable-msg=E1101,W0613,W0603
from datetime import datetime, date
import time
import re
import copy
import itertools
import warnings
import os

from pandas.core.dtypes.common import (
    is_list_like,
    is_categorical_dtype,
    is_timedelta64_dtype,
    is_datetime64tz_dtype,
    is_datetime64_dtype,
    _ensure_object,
    _ensure_int64,
    _ensure_platform_int)
from pandas.core.dtypes.missing import array_equivalent

import numpy as np
from pandas import (Series, DataFrame, Panel, Panel4D, Index,
                    MultiIndex, Int64Index, isnull, concat,
                    SparseSeries, SparseDataFrame, PeriodIndex,
                    DatetimeIndex, TimedeltaIndex)
from pandas.core import config
from pandas.io.common import _stringify_path
from pandas.core.sparse.array import BlockIndex, IntIndex
from pandas.core.base import StringMixin
from pandas.io.formats.printing import adjoin, pprint_thing
from pandas.errors import PerformanceWarning
from pandas.core.common import _asarray_tuplesafe
from pandas.core.algorithms import match, unique
from pandas.core.categorical import Categorical, _factorize_from_iterables
from pandas.core.internals import (BlockManager, make_block,
                                   _block2d_to_blocknd,
                                   _factor_indexer, _block_shape)
from pandas.core.index import _ensure_index
from pandas import compat
from pandas.compat import u_safe as u, PY3, range, lrange, string_types, filter
from pandas.core.config import get_option
from pandas.core.computation.pytables import Expr, maybe_expression

from pandas._libs import tslib, algos, lib

from distutils.version import LooseVersion

# versioning attribute
_version = '0.15.2'

# encoding
# PY3 encoding if we don't specify
_default_encoding = 'UTF-8'


def _ensure_decoded(s):
    """ if we have bytes, decode them to unicode """
    if isinstance(s, np.bytes_):
        s = s.decode('UTF-8')
    return s


def _ensure_encoding(encoding):
    # set the encoding if we need
    if encoding is None:
        if PY3:
            encoding = _default_encoding
    return encoding


Term = Expr


def _ensure_term(where, scope_level):
    """
    ensure that the where is a Term or a list of Term
    this makes sure that we are capturing the scope of variables
    that are passed
    create the terms here with a frame_level=2 (we are 2 levels down)
    """

    # only consider list/tuple here as an ndarray is automaticaly a coordinate
    # list
    level = scope_level + 1
    if isinstance(where, (list, tuple)):
        wlist = []
        for w in filter(lambda x: x is not None, where):
            if not maybe_expression(w):
                wlist.append(w)
            else:
                wlist.append(Term(w, scope_level=level))
        where = wlist
    elif maybe_expression(where):
        where = Term(where, scope_level=level)
    return where


class PossibleDataLossError(Exception):
    pass


class ClosedFileError(Exception):
    pass


class IncompatibilityWarning(Warning):
    pass


incompatibility_doc = """
where criteria is being ignored as this version [%s] is too old (or
not-defined), read the file in and write it out to a new file to upgrade (with
the copy_to method)
"""


class AttributeConflictWarning(Warning):
    pass


attribute_conflict_doc = """
the [%s] attribute of the existing index is [%s] which conflicts with the new
[%s], resetting the attribute to None
"""


class DuplicateWarning(Warning):
    pass


duplicate_doc = """
duplicate entries in table, taking most recently appended
"""

performance_doc = """
your performance may suffer as PyTables will pickle object types that it cannot
map directly to c-types [inferred_type->%s,key->%s] [items->%s]
"""

# formats
_FORMAT_MAP = {
    u('f'): 'fixed',
    u('fixed'): 'fixed',
    u('t'): 'table',
    u('table'): 'table',
}

format_deprecate_doc = """
the table keyword has been deprecated
use the format='fixed(f)|table(t)' keyword instead
  fixed(f) : specifies the Fixed format
             and is the default for put operations
  table(t) : specifies the Table format
             and is the default for append operations
"""

# map object types
_TYPE_MAP = {

    Series: u('series'),
    SparseSeries: u('sparse_series'),
    DataFrame: u('frame'),
    SparseDataFrame: u('sparse_frame'),
    Panel: u('wide'),
    Panel4D: u('ndim'),
}

# storer class map
_STORER_MAP = {
    u('Series'): 'LegacySeriesFixed',
    u('DataFrame'): 'LegacyFrameFixed',
    u('DataMatrix'): 'LegacyFrameFixed',
    u('series'): 'SeriesFixed',
    u('sparse_series'): 'SparseSeriesFixed',
    u('frame'): 'FrameFixed',
    u('sparse_frame'): 'SparseFrameFixed',
    u('wide'): 'PanelFixed',
}

# table class map
_TABLE_MAP = {
    u('generic_table'): 'GenericTable',
    u('appendable_series'): 'AppendableSeriesTable',
    u('appendable_multiseries'): 'AppendableMultiSeriesTable',
    u('appendable_frame'): 'AppendableFrameTable',
    u('appendable_multiframe'): 'AppendableMultiFrameTable',
    u('appendable_panel'): 'AppendablePanelTable',
    u('appendable_ndim'): 'AppendableNDimTable',
    u('worm'): 'WORMTable',
    u('legacy_frame'): 'LegacyFrameTable',
    u('legacy_panel'): 'LegacyPanelTable',
}

# axes map
_AXES_MAP = {
    DataFrame: [0],
    Panel: [1, 2],
    Panel4D: [1, 2, 3],
}

# register our configuration options
dropna_doc = """
: boolean
    drop ALL nan rows when appending to a table
"""
format_doc = """
: format
    default format writing format, if None, then
    put will default to 'fixed' and append will default to 'table'
"""

with config.config_prefix('io.hdf'):
    config.register_option('dropna_table', False, dropna_doc,
                           validator=config.is_bool)
    config.register_option(
        'default_format', None, format_doc,
        validator=config.is_one_of_factory(['fixed', 'table', None])
    )

# oh the troubles to reduce import time
_table_mod = None
_table_file_open_policy_is_strict = False


def _tables():
    global _table_mod
    global _table_file_open_policy_is_strict
    if _table_mod is None:
        import tables
        _table_mod = tables

        # version requirements
        if LooseVersion(tables.__version__) < '3.0.0':
            raise ImportError("PyTables version >= 3.0.0 is required")

        # set the file open policy
        # return the file open policy; this changes as of pytables 3.1
        # depending on the HDF5 version
        try:
            _table_file_open_policy_is_strict = (
                tables.file._FILE_OPEN_POLICY == 'strict')
        except:
            pass

    return _table_mod

# interface to/from ###


def to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, value, mode=None, complevel=None, complib=None,
           append=None, **kwargs):
    """ store this object, close it if we opened it """

    if append:
        f = lambda store: store.append(key, value, **kwargs)
    else:
        f = lambda store: store.put(key, value, **kwargs)

    path_or_buf = _stringify_path(path_or_buf)
    if isinstance(path_or_buf, string_types):
        with HDFStore(path_or_buf, mode=mode, complevel=complevel,
                      complib=complib) as store:
            f(store)
    else:
        f(path_or_buf)


def read_hdf(path_or_buf, key=None, **kwargs):
    """ read from the store, close it if we opened it

        Retrieve pandas object stored in file, optionally based on where
        criteria

        Parameters
        ----------
        path_or_buf : path (string), buffer, or path object (pathlib.Path or
            py._path.local.LocalPath) to read from

            .. versionadded:: 0.19.0 support for pathlib, py.path.

        key : group identifier in the store. Can be omitted if the HDF file
            contains a single pandas object.
        where : list of Term (or convertable) objects, optional
        start : optional, integer (defaults to None), row number to start
            selection
        stop  : optional, integer (defaults to None), row number to stop
            selection
        columns : optional, a list of columns that if not None, will limit the
            return columns
        iterator : optional, boolean, return an iterator, default False
        chunksize : optional, nrows to include in iteration, return an iterator

        Returns
        -------
        The selected object

        """

    if kwargs.get('mode', 'a') not in ['r', 'r+', 'a']:
        raise ValueError('mode {0} is not allowed while performing a read. '
                         'Allowed modes are r, r+ and a.'
                         .format(kwargs.get('mode')))
    # grab the scope
    if 'where' in kwargs:
        kwargs['where'] = _ensure_term(kwargs['where'], scope_level=1)

    if isinstance(path_or_buf, HDFStore):
        if not path_or_buf.is_open:
            raise IOError('The HDFStore must be open for reading.')

        store = path_or_buf
        auto_close = False
    else:
        path_or_buf = _stringify_path(path_or_buf)
        if not isinstance(path_or_buf, string_types):
            raise NotImplementedError('Support for generic buffers has not '
                                      'been implemented.')
        try:
            exists = os.path.exists(path_or_buf)

        # if filepath is too long
        except (TypeError, ValueError):
            exists = False

        if not exists:
            raise compat.FileNotFoundError(
                'File %s does not exist' % path_or_buf)

        store = HDFStore(path_or_buf, **kwargs)
        # can't auto open/close if we are using an iterator
        # so delegate to the iterator
        auto_close = True

    try:
        if key is None:
            groups = store.groups()
            if len(groups) == 0:
                raise ValueError('No dataset in HDF5 file.')
            candidate_only_group = groups[0]

            # For the HDF file to have only one dataset, all other groups
            # should then be metadata groups for that candidate group. (This
            # assumes that the groups() method enumerates parent groups
            # before their children.)
            for group_to_check in groups[1:]:
                if not _is_metadata_of(group_to_check, candidate_only_group):
                    raise ValueError('key must be provided when HDF5 file '
                                     'contains multiple datasets.')
            key = candidate_only_group._v_pathname
        return store.select(key, auto_close=auto_close, **kwargs)
    except:
        # if there is an error, close the store
        try:
            store.close()
        except:
            pass

        raise


def _is_metadata_of(group, parent_group):
    """Check if a given group is a metadata group for a given parent_group."""
    if group._v_depth <= parent_group._v_depth:
        return False

    current = group
    while current._v_depth > 1:
        parent = current._v_parent
        if parent == parent_group and current._v_name == 'meta':
            return True
        current = current._v_parent
    return False


class HDFStore(StringMixin):

    """
    dict-like IO interface for storing pandas objects in PyTables
    either Fixed or Table format.

    Parameters
    ----------
    path : string
        File path to HDF5 file
    mode : {'a', 'w', 'r', 'r+'}, default 'a'

        ``'r'``
            Read-only; no data can be modified.
        ``'w'``
            Write; a new file is created (an existing file with the same
            name would be deleted).
        ``'a'``
            Append; an existing file is opened for reading and writing,
            and if the file does not exist it is created.
        ``'r+'``
            It is similar to ``'a'``, but the file must already exist.
    complevel : int, 0-9, default 0
            Specifies a compression level for data.
            A value of 0 disables compression.
    complib : {'zlib', 'lzo', 'bzip2', 'blosc', None}, default None
            Specifies the compression library to be used.
            As of v0.20.2 these additional compressors for Blosc are supported
            (default if no compressor specified: 'blosc:blosclz'):
            {'blosc:blosclz', 'blosc:lz4', 'blosc:lz4hc', 'blosc:snappy',
             'blosc:zlib', 'blosc:zstd'}.
            Specifying a compression library which is not available issues
            a ValueError.
    fletcher32 : bool, default False
            If applying compression use the fletcher32 checksum

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from pandas import DataFrame
    >>> from numpy.random import randn
    >>> bar = DataFrame(randn(10, 4))
    >>> store = HDFStore('test.h5')
    >>> store['foo'] = bar   # write to HDF5
    >>> bar = store['foo']   # retrieve
    >>> store.close()
    """

    def __init__(self, path, mode=None, complevel=None, complib=None,
                 fletcher32=False, **kwargs):
        try:
            import tables  # noqa
        except ImportError as ex:  # pragma: no cover
            raise ImportError('HDFStore requires PyTables, "{ex}" problem '
                              'importing'.format(ex=str(ex)))

        if complib is not None and complib not in tables.filters.all_complibs:
            raise ValueError(
                "complib only supports {libs} compression.".format(
                    libs=tables.filters.all_complibs))

        self._path = _stringify_path(path)
        if mode is None:
            mode = 'a'
        self._mode = mode
        self._handle = None
        self._complevel = complevel
        self._complib = complib
        self._fletcher32 = fletcher32
        self._filters = None
        self.open(mode=mode, **kwargs)

    def __fspath__(self):
        return self._path

    @property
    def root(self):
        """ return the root node """
        self._check_if_open()
        return self._handle.root

    @property
    def filename(self):
        return self._path

    def __getitem__(self, key):
        return self.get(key)

    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
        self.put(key, value)

    def __delitem__(self, key):
        return self.remove(key)

    def __getattr__(self, name):
        """ allow attribute access to get stores """
        try:
            return self.get(name)
        except:
            pass
        raise AttributeError("'%s' object has no attribute '%s'" %
                             (type(self).__name__, name))

    def __contains__(self, key):
        """ check for existance of this key
              can match the exact pathname or the pathnm w/o the leading '/'
              """
        node = self.get_node(key)
        if node is not None:
            name = node._v_pathname
            if name == key or name[1:] == key:
                return True
        return False

    def __len__(self):
        return len(self.groups())

    def __unicode__(self):
        output = '%s\nFile path: %s\n' % (type(self), pprint_thing(self._path))
        if self.is_open:
            lkeys = sorted(list(self.keys()))
            if len(lkeys):
                keys = []
                values = []

                for k in lkeys:
                    try:
                        s = self.get_storer(k)
                        if s is not None:
                            keys.append(pprint_thing(s.pathname or k))
                            values.append(
                                pprint_thing(s or 'invalid_HDFStore node'))
                    except Exception as detail:
                        keys.append(k)
                        values.append("[invalid_HDFStore node: %s]"
                                      % pprint_thing(detail))

                output += adjoin(12, keys, values)
            else:
                output += 'Empty'
        else:
            output += "File is CLOSED"

        return output

    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
        self.close()

    def keys(self):
        """
        Return a (potentially unordered) list of the keys corresponding to the
        objects stored in the HDFStore. These are ABSOLUTE path-names (e.g.
        have the leading '/'
        """
        return [n._v_pathname for n in self.groups()]

    def __iter__(self):
        return iter(self.keys())

    def items(self):
        """
        iterate on key->group
        """
        for g in self.groups():
            yield g._v_pathname, g

    iteritems = items

    def open(self, mode='a', **kwargs):
        """
        Open the file in the specified mode

        Parameters
        ----------
        mode : {'a', 'w', 'r', 'r+'}, default 'a'
            See HDFStore docstring or tables.open_file for info about modes
        """
        tables = _tables()

        if self._mode != mode:

            # if we are changing a write mode to read, ok
            if self._mode in ['a', 'w'] and mode in ['r', 'r+']:
                pass
            elif mode in ['w']:

                # this would truncate, raise here
                if self.is_open:
                    raise PossibleDataLossError(
                        "Re-opening the file [{0}] with mode [{1}] "
                        "will delete the current file!"
                        .format(self._path, self._mode)
                    )

            self._mode = mode

        # close and reopen the handle
        if self.is_open:
            self.close()

        if self._complib is not None:
            if self._complevel is None:
                self._complevel = 9
            self._filters = _tables().Filters(self._complevel,
                                              self._complib,
                                              fletcher32=self._fletcher32)

        try:
            self._handle = tables.open_file(self._path, self._mode, **kwargs)
        except (IOError) as e:  # pragma: no cover
            if 'can not be written' in str(e):
                print('Opening %s in read-only mode' % self._path)
                self._handle = tables.open_file(self._path, 'r', **kwargs)
            else:
                raise

        except (ValueError) as e:

            # trap PyTables >= 3.1 FILE_OPEN_POLICY exception
            # to provide an updated message
            if 'FILE_OPEN_POLICY' in str(e):
                e = ValueError(
                    "PyTables [{version}] no longer supports opening multiple "
                    "files\n"
                    "even in read-only mode on this HDF5 version "
                    "[{hdf_version}]. You can accept this\n"
                    "and not open the same file multiple times at once,\n"
                    "upgrade the HDF5 version, or downgrade to PyTables 3.0.0 "
                    "which allows\n"
                    "files to be opened multiple times at once\n"
                    .format(version=tables.__version__,
                            hdf_version=tables.get_hdf5_version()))

            raise e

        except (Exception) as e:

            # trying to read from a non-existant file causes an error which
            # is not part of IOError, make it one
            if self._mode == 'r' and 'Unable to open/create file' in str(e):
                raise IOError(str(e))
            raise

    def close(self):
        """
        Close the PyTables file handle
        """
        if self._handle is not None:
            self._handle.close()
        self._handle = None

    @property
    def is_open(self):
        """
        return a boolean indicating whether the file is open
        """
        if self._handle is None:
            return False
        return bool(self._handle.isopen)

    def flush(self, fsync=False):
        """
        Force all buffered modifications to be written to disk.

        Parameters
        ----------
        fsync : bool (default False)
          call ``os.fsync()`` on the file handle to force writing to disk.

        Notes
        -----
        Without ``fsync=True``, flushing may not guarantee that the OS writes
        to disk. With fsync, the operation will block until the OS claims the
        file has been written; however, other caching layers may still
        interfere.
        """
        if self._handle is not None:
            self._handle.flush()
            if fsync:
                try:
                    os.fsync(self._handle.fileno())
                except:
                    pass

    def get(self, key):
        """
        Retrieve pandas object stored in file

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : object

        Returns
        -------
        obj : type of object stored in file
        """
        group = self.get_node(key)
        if group is None:
            raise KeyError('No object named %s in the file' % key)
        return self._read_group(group)

    def select(self, key, where=None, start=None, stop=None, columns=None,
               iterator=False, chunksize=None, auto_close=False, **kwargs):
        """
        Retrieve pandas object stored in file, optionally based on where
        criteria

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : object
        where : list of Term (or convertable) objects, optional
        start : integer (defaults to None), row number to start selection
        stop  : integer (defaults to None), row number to stop selection
        columns : a list of columns that if not None, will limit the return
            columns
        iterator : boolean, return an iterator, default False
        chunksize : nrows to include in iteration, return an iterator
        auto_close : boolean, should automatically close the store when
            finished, default is False

        Returns
        -------
        The selected object

        """
        group = self.get_node(key)
        if group is None:
            raise KeyError('No object named %s in the file' % key)

        # create the storer and axes
        where = _ensure_term(where, scope_level=1)
        s = self._create_storer(group)
        s.infer_axes()

        # function to call on iteration
        def func(_start, _stop, _where):
            return s.read(start=_start, stop=_stop,
                          where=_where,
                          columns=columns, **kwargs)

        # create the iterator
        it = TableIterator(self, s, func, where=where, nrows=s.nrows,
                           start=start, stop=stop, iterator=iterator,
                           chunksize=chunksize, auto_close=auto_close)

        return it.get_result()

    def select_as_coordinates(
            self, key, where=None, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):
        """
        return the selection as an Index

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : object
        where : list of Term (or convertable) objects, optional
        start : integer (defaults to None), row number to start selection
        stop  : integer (defaults to None), row number to stop selection
        """
        where = _ensure_term(where, scope_level=1)
        return self.get_storer(key).read_coordinates(where=where, start=start,
                                                     stop=stop, **kwargs)

    def select_column(self, key, column, **kwargs):
        """
        return a single column from the table. This is generally only useful to
        select an indexable

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : object
        column: the column of interest

        Exceptions
        ----------
        raises KeyError if the column is not found (or key is not a valid
            store)
        raises ValueError if the column can not be extracted individually (it
            is part of a data block)

        """
        return self.get_storer(key).read_column(column=column, **kwargs)

    def select_as_multiple(self, keys, where=None, selector=None, columns=None,
                           start=None, stop=None, iterator=False,
                           chunksize=None, auto_close=False, **kwargs):
        """ Retrieve pandas objects from multiple tables

        Parameters
        ----------
        keys : a list of the tables
        selector : the table to apply the where criteria (defaults to keys[0]
            if not supplied)
        columns : the columns I want back
        start : integer (defaults to None), row number to start selection
        stop  : integer (defaults to None), row number to stop selection
        iterator : boolean, return an iterator, default False
        chunksize : nrows to include in iteration, return an iterator

        Exceptions
        ----------
        raises KeyError if keys or selector is not found or keys is empty
        raises TypeError if keys is not a list or tuple
        raises ValueError if the tables are not ALL THE SAME DIMENSIONS
        """

        # default to single select
        where = _ensure_term(where, scope_level=1)
        if isinstance(keys, (list, tuple)) and len(keys) == 1:
            keys = keys[0]
        if isinstance(keys, string_types):
            return self.select(key=keys, where=where, columns=columns,
                               start=start, stop=stop, iterator=iterator,
                               chunksize=chunksize, **kwargs)

        if not isinstance(keys, (list, tuple)):
            raise TypeError("keys must be a list/tuple")

        if not len(keys):
            raise ValueError("keys must have a non-zero length")

        if selector is None:
            selector = keys[0]

        # collect the tables
        tbls = [self.get_storer(k) for k in keys]
        s = self.get_storer(selector)

        # validate rows
        nrows = None
        for t, k in itertools.chain([(s, selector)], zip(tbls, keys)):
            if t is None:
                raise KeyError("Invalid table [%s]" % k)
            if not t.is_table:
                raise TypeError(
                    "object [%s] is not a table, and cannot be used in all "
                    "select as multiple" % t.pathname
                )

            if nrows is None:
                nrows = t.nrows
            elif t.nrows != nrows:
                raise ValueError(
                    "all tables must have exactly the same nrows!")

        # axis is the concentation axes
        axis = list(set([t.non_index_axes[0][0] for t in tbls]))[0]

        def func(_start, _stop, _where):

            # retrieve the objs, _where is always passed as a set of
            # coordinates here
            objs = [t.read(where=_where, columns=columns, **kwargs)
                    for t in tbls]

            # concat and return
            return concat(objs, axis=axis,
                          verify_integrity=False)._consolidate()

        # create the iterator
        it = TableIterator(self, s, func, where=where, nrows=nrows,
                           start=start, stop=stop, iterator=iterator,
                           chunksize=chunksize, auto_close=auto_close)

        return it.get_result(coordinates=True)

    def put(self, key, value, format=None, append=False, **kwargs):
        """
        Store object in HDFStore

        Parameters
        ----------
        key      : object
        value    : {Series, DataFrame, Panel}
        format   : 'fixed(f)|table(t)', default is 'fixed'
            fixed(f) : Fixed format
                       Fast writing/reading. Not-appendable, nor searchable
            table(t) : Table format
                       Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform
                       worse but allow more flexible operations like searching
                       / selecting subsets of the data
        append   : boolean, default False
            This will force Table format, append the input data to the
            existing.
        data_columns : list of columns to create as data columns, or True to
            use all columns. See
            `here <http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/io.html#query-via-data-columns>`__ # noqa
        encoding : default None, provide an encoding for strings
        dropna   : boolean, default False, do not write an ALL nan row to
            the store settable by the option 'io.hdf.dropna_table'
        """
        if format is None:
            format = get_option("io.hdf.default_format") or 'fixed'
        kwargs = self._validate_format(format, kwargs)
        self._write_to_group(key, value, append=append, **kwargs)

    def remove(self, key, where=None, start=None, stop=None):
        """
        Remove pandas object partially by specifying the where condition

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : string
            Node to remove or delete rows from
        where : list of Term (or convertable) objects, optional
        start : integer (defaults to None), row number to start selection
        stop  : integer (defaults to None), row number to stop selection

        Returns
        -------
        number of rows removed (or None if not a Table)

        Exceptions
        ----------
        raises KeyError if key is not a valid store

        """
        where = _ensure_term(where, scope_level=1)
        try:
            s = self.get_storer(key)
        except:

            if where is not None:
                raise ValueError(
                    "trying to remove a node with a non-None where clause!")

            # we are actually trying to remove a node (with children)
            s = self.get_node(key)
            if s is not None:
                s._f_remove(recursive=True)
                return None

        if s is None:
            raise KeyError('No object named %s in the file' % key)

        # remove the node
        if where is None and start is None and stop is None:
            s.group._f_remove(recursive=True)

        # delete from the table
        else:
            if not s.is_table:
                raise ValueError(
                    'can only remove with where on objects written as tables')
            return s.delete(where=where, start=start, stop=stop)

    def append(self, key, value, format=None, append=True, columns=None,
               dropna=None, **kwargs):
        """
        Append to Table in file. Node must already exist and be Table
        format.

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : object
        value : {Series, DataFrame, Panel, Panel4D}
        format: 'table' is the default
            table(t) : table format
                       Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform
                       worse but allow more flexible operations like searching
                       / selecting subsets of the data
        append       : boolean, default True, append the input data to the
            existing
        data_columns :  list of columns, or True, default None
            List of columns to create as indexed data columns for on-disk
            queries, or True to use all columns. By default only the axes
            of the object are indexed. See `here
            <http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/io.html#query-via-data-columns>`__.
        min_itemsize : dict of columns that specify minimum string sizes
        nan_rep      : string to use as string nan represenation
        chunksize    : size to chunk the writing
        expectedrows : expected TOTAL row size of this table
        encoding     : default None, provide an encoding for strings
        dropna       : boolean, default False, do not write an ALL nan row to
            the store settable by the option 'io.hdf.dropna_table'

        Notes
        -----
        Does *not* check if data being appended overlaps with existing
        data in the table, so be careful
        """
        if columns is not None:
            raise TypeError("columns is not a supported keyword in append, "
                            "try data_columns")

        if dropna is None:
            dropna = get_option("io.hdf.dropna_table")
        if format is None:
            format = get_option("io.hdf.default_format") or 'table'
        kwargs = self._validate_format(format, kwargs)
        self._write_to_group(key, value, append=append, dropna=dropna,
                             **kwargs)

    def append_to_multiple(self, d, value, selector, data_columns=None,
                           axes=None, dropna=False, **kwargs):
        """
        Append to multiple tables

        Parameters
        ----------
        d : a dict of table_name to table_columns, None is acceptable as the
            values of one node (this will get all the remaining columns)
        value : a pandas object
        selector : a string that designates the indexable table; all of its
            columns will be designed as data_columns, unless data_columns is
            passed, in which case these are used
        data_columns : list of columns to create as data columns, or True to
            use all columns
        dropna : if evaluates to True, drop rows from all tables if any single
                 row in each table has all NaN. Default False.

        Notes
        -----
        axes parameter is currently not accepted

        """
        if axes is not None:
            raise TypeError("axes is currently not accepted as a parameter to"
                            " append_to_multiple; you can create the "
                            "tables independently instead")

        if not isinstance(d, dict):
            raise ValueError(
                "append_to_multiple must have a dictionary specified as the "
                "way to split the value"
            )

        if selector not in d:
            raise ValueError(
                "append_to_multiple requires a selector that is in passed dict"
            )

        # figure out the splitting axis (the non_index_axis)
        axis = list(set(range(value.ndim)) - set(_AXES_MAP[type(value)]))[0]

        # figure out how to split the value
        remain_key = None
        remain_values = []
        for k, v in d.items():
            if v is None:
                if remain_key is not None:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "append_to_multiple can only have one value in d that "
                        "is None"
                    )
                remain_key = k
            else:
                remain_values.extend(v)
        if remain_key is not None:
            ordered = value.axes[axis]
            ordd = ordered.difference(Index(remain_values))
            ordd = sorted(ordered.get_indexer(ordd))
            d[remain_key] = ordered.take(ordd)

        # data_columns
        if data_columns is None:
            data_columns = d[selector]

        # ensure rows are synchronized across the tables
        if dropna:
            idxs = (value[cols].dropna(how='all').index for cols in d.values())
            valid_index = next(idxs)
            for index in idxs:
                valid_index = valid_index.intersection(index)
            value = value.loc[valid_index]

        # append
        for k, v in d.items():
            dc = data_columns if k == selector else None

            # compute the val
            val = value.reindex_axis(v, axis=axis)

            self.append(k, val, data_columns=dc, **kwargs)

    def create_table_index(self, key, **kwargs):
        """ Create a pytables index on the table
        Parameters
        ----------
        key : object (the node to index)

        Exceptions
        ----------
        raises if the node is not a table

        """

        # version requirements
        _tables()
        s = self.get_storer(key)
        if s is None:
            return

        if not s.is_table:
            raise TypeError(
                "cannot create table index on a Fixed format store")
        s.create_index(**kwargs)

    def groups(self):
        """return a list of all the top-level nodes (that are not themselves a
        pandas storage object)
        """
        _tables()
        self._check_if_open()
        return [
            g for g in self._handle.walk_nodes()
            if (getattr(g._v_attrs, 'pandas_type', None) or
                getattr(g, 'table', None) or
                (isinstance(g, _table_mod.table.Table) and
                 g._v_name != u('table')))
        ]

    def get_node(self, key):
        """ return the node with the key or None if it does not exist """
        self._check_if_open()
        try:
            if not key.startswith('/'):
                key = '/' + key
            return self._handle.get_node(self.root, key)
        except:
            return None

    def get_storer(self, key):
        """ return the storer object for a key, raise if not in the file """
        group = self.get_node(key)
        if group is None:
            return None
        s = self._create_storer(group)
        s.infer_axes()
        return s

    def copy(self, file, mode='w', propindexes=True, keys=None, complib=None,
             complevel=None, fletcher32=False, overwrite=True):
        """ copy the existing store to a new file, upgrading in place

            Parameters
            ----------
            propindexes: restore indexes in copied file (defaults to True)
            keys       : list of keys to include in the copy (defaults to all)
            overwrite  : overwrite (remove and replace) existing nodes in the
                new store (default is True)
            mode, complib, complevel, fletcher32 same as in HDFStore.__init__

            Returns
            -------
            open file handle of the new store

        """
        new_store = HDFStore(
            file,
            mode=mode,
            complib=complib,
            complevel=complevel,
            fletcher32=fletcher32)
        if keys is None:
            keys = list(self.keys())
        if not isinstance(keys, (tuple, list)):
            keys = [keys]
        for k in keys:
            s = self.get_storer(k)
            if s is not None:

                if k in new_store:
                    if overwrite:
                        new_store.remove(k)

                data = self.select(k)
                if s.is_table:

                    index = False
                    if propindexes:
                        index = [a.name for a in s.axes if a.is_indexed]
                    new_store.append(
                        k, data, index=index,
                        data_columns=getattr(s, 'data_columns', None),
                        encoding=s.encoding
                    )
                else:
                    new_store.put(k, data, encoding=s.encoding)

        return new_store

    # private methods ######
    def _check_if_open(self):
        if not self.is_open:
            raise ClosedFileError("{0} file is not open!".format(self._path))

    def _validate_format(self, format, kwargs):
        """ validate / deprecate formats; return the new kwargs """
        kwargs = kwargs.copy()

        # validate
        try:
            kwargs['format'] = _FORMAT_MAP[format.lower()]
        except:
            raise TypeError("invalid HDFStore format specified [{0}]"
                            .format(format))

        return kwargs

    def _create_storer(self, group, format=None, value=None, append=False,
                       **kwargs):
        """ return a suitable class to operate """

        def error(t):
            raise TypeError(
                "cannot properly create the storer for: [%s] [group->%s,"
                "value->%s,format->%s,append->%s,kwargs->%s]"
                % (t, group, type(value), format, append, kwargs)
            )

        pt = _ensure_decoded(getattr(group._v_attrs, 'pandas_type', None))
        tt = _ensure_decoded(getattr(group._v_attrs, 'table_type', None))

        # infer the pt from the passed value
        if pt is None:
            if value is None:

                _tables()
                if (getattr(group, 'table', None) or
                        isinstance(group, _table_mod.table.Table)):
                    pt = u('frame_table')
                    tt = u('generic_table')
                else:
                    raise TypeError(
                        "cannot create a storer if the object is not existing "
                        "nor a value are passed")
            else:

                try:
                    pt = _TYPE_MAP[type(value)]
                except:
                    error('_TYPE_MAP')

                # we are actually a table
                if format == 'table':
                    pt += u('_table')

        # a storer node
        if u('table') not in pt:
            try:
                return globals()[_STORER_MAP[pt]](self, group, **kwargs)
            except:
                error('_STORER_MAP')

        # existing node (and must be a table)
        if tt is None:

            # if we are a writer, determin the tt
            if value is not None:

                if pt == u('series_table'):
                    index = getattr(value, 'index', None)
                    if index is not None:
                        if index.nlevels == 1:
                            tt = u('appendable_series')
                        elif index.nlevels > 1:
                            tt = u('appendable_multiseries')
                elif pt == u('frame_table'):
                    index = getattr(value, 'index', None)
                    if index is not None:
                        if index.nlevels == 1:
                            tt = u('appendable_frame')
                        elif index.nlevels > 1:
                            tt = u('appendable_multiframe')
                elif pt == u('wide_table'):
                    tt = u('appendable_panel')
                elif pt == u('ndim_table'):
                    tt = u('appendable_ndim')

            else:

                # distiguish between a frame/table
                tt = u('legacy_panel')
                try:
                    fields = group.table._v_attrs.fields
                    if len(fields) == 1 and fields[0] == u('value'):
                        tt = u('legacy_frame')
                except:
                    pass

        try:
            return globals()[_TABLE_MAP[tt]](self, group, **kwargs)
        except:
            error('_TABLE_MAP')

    def _write_to_group(self, key, value, format, index=True, append=False,
                        complib=None, encoding=None, **kwargs):
        group = self.get_node(key)

        # remove the node if we are not appending
        if group is not None and not append:
            self._handle.remove_node(group, recursive=True)
            group = None

        # we don't want to store a table node at all if are object is 0-len
        # as there are not dtypes
        if getattr(value, 'empty', None) and (format == 'table' or append):
            return

        if group is None:
            paths = key.split('/')

            # recursively create the groups
            path = '/'
            for p in paths:
                if not len(p):
                    continue
                new_path = path
                if not path.endswith('/'):
                    new_path += '/'
                new_path += p
                group = self.get_node(new_path)
                if group is None:
                    group = self._handle.create_group(path, p)
                path = new_path

        s = self._create_storer(group, format, value, append=append,
                                encoding=encoding, **kwargs)
        if append:
            # raise if we are trying to append to a Fixed format,
            #       or a table that exists (and we are putting)
            if (not s.is_table or
                    (s.is_table and format == 'fixed' and s.is_exists)):
                raise ValueError('Can only append to Tables')
            if not s.is_exists:
                s.set_object_info()
        else:
            s.set_object_info()

        if not s.is_table and complib:
            raise ValueError(
                'Compression not supported on Fixed format stores'
            )

        # write the object
        s.write(obj=value, append=append, complib=complib, **kwargs)

        if s.is_table and index:
            s.create_index(columns=index)

    def _read_group(self, group, **kwargs):
        s = self._create_storer(group)
        s.infer_axes()
        return s.read(**kwargs)


def get_store(path, **kwargs):
    """ Backwards compatible alias for ``HDFStore``
    """
    warnings.warn(
        "get_store is deprecated and be "
        "removed in a future version\n"
        "HDFStore(path, **kwargs) is the replacement",
        FutureWarning,
        stacklevel=6)

    return HDFStore(path, **kwargs)


class TableIterator(object):

    """ define the iteration interface on a table

        Parameters
        ----------

        store : the reference store
        s     : the refered storer
        func  : the function to execute the query
        where : the where of the query
        nrows : the rows to iterate on
        start : the passed start value (default is None)
        stop  : the passed stop value (default is None)
        iterator : boolean, whether to use the default iterator
        chunksize : the passed chunking value (default is 50000)
        auto_close : boolean, automatically close the store at the end of
            iteration, default is False
        kwargs : the passed kwargs
        """

    def __init__(self, store, s, func, where, nrows, start=None, stop=None,
                 iterator=False, chunksize=None, auto_close=False):
        self.store = store
        self.s = s
        self.func = func
        self.where = where

        # set start/stop if they are not set if we are a table
        if self.s.is_table:
            if nrows is None:
                nrows = 0
            if start is None:
                start = 0
            if stop is None:
                stop = nrows
            stop = min(nrows, stop)

        self.nrows = nrows
        self.start = start
        self.stop = stop

        self.coordinates = None
        if iterator or chunksize is not None:
            if chunksize is None:
                chunksize = 100000
            self.chunksize = int(chunksize)
        else:
            self.chunksize = None

        self.auto_close = auto_close

    def __iter__(self):

        # iterate
        current = self.start
        while current < self.stop:

            stop = min(current + self.chunksize, self.stop)
            value = self.func(None, None, self.coordinates[current:stop])
            current = stop
            if value is None or not len(value):
                continue

            yield value

        self.close()

    def close(self):
        if self.auto_close:
            self.store.close()

    def get_result(self, coordinates=False):

        #  return the actual iterator
        if self.chunksize is not None:
            if not self.s.is_table:
                raise TypeError(
                    "can only use an iterator or chunksize on a table")

            self.coordinates = self.s.read_coordinates(where=self.where)

            return self

        # if specified read via coordinates (necessary for multiple selections
        if coordinates:
            where = self.s.read_coordinates(where=self.where)
        else:
            where = self.where

        # directly return the result
        results = self.func(self.start, self.stop, where)
        self.close()
        return results


class IndexCol(StringMixin):

    """ an index column description class

        Parameters
        ----------

        axis   : axis which I reference
        values : the ndarray like converted values
        kind   : a string description of this type
        typ    : the pytables type
        pos    : the position in the pytables

        """
    is_an_indexable = True
    is_data_indexable = True
    _info_fields = ['freq', 'tz', 'index_name']

    def __init__(self, values=None, kind=None, typ=None, cname=None,
                 itemsize=None, name=None, axis=None, kind_attr=None,
                 pos=None, freq=None, tz=None, index_name=None, **kwargs):
        self.values = values
        self.kind = kind
        self.typ = typ
        self.itemsize = itemsize
        self.name = name
        self.cname = cname
        self.kind_attr = kind_attr
        self.axis = axis
        self.pos = pos
        self.freq = freq
        self.tz = tz
        self.index_name = index_name
        self.table = None
        self.meta = None
        self.metadata = None

        if name is not None:
            self.set_name(name, kind_attr)
        if pos is not None:
            self.set_pos(pos)

    def set_name(self, name, kind_attr=None):
        """ set the name of this indexer """
        self.name = name
        self.kind_attr = kind_attr or "%s_kind" % name
        if self.cname is None:
            self.cname = name

        return self

    def set_axis(self, axis):
        """ set the axis over which I index """
        self.axis = axis

        return self

    def set_pos(self, pos):
        """ set the position of this column in the Table """
        self.pos = pos
        if pos is not None and self.typ is not None:
            self.typ._v_pos = pos
        return self

    def set_table(self, table):
        self.table = table
        return self

    def __unicode__(self):
        temp = tuple(
            map(pprint_thing,
                    (self.name,
                     self.cname,
                     self.axis,
                     self.pos,
                     self.kind)))
        return "name->%s,cname->%s,axis->%s,pos->%s,kind->%s" % temp

    def __eq__(self, other):
        """ compare 2 col items """
        return all([getattr(self, a, None) == getattr(other, a, None)
                    for a in ['name', 'cname', 'axis', 'pos']])

    def __ne__(self, other):
        return not self.__eq__(other)

    @property
    def is_indexed(self):
        """ return whether I am an indexed column """
        try:
            return getattr(self.table.cols, self.cname).is_indexed
        except:
            False

    def copy(self):
        new_self = copy.copy(self)
        return new_self

    def infer(self, handler):
        """infer this column from the table: create and return a new object"""
        table = handler.table
        new_self = self.copy()
        new_self.set_table(table)
        new_self.get_attr()
        new_self.read_metadata(handler)
        return new_self

    def convert(self, values, nan_rep, encoding):
        """ set the values from this selection: take = take ownership """

        # values is a recarray
        if values.dtype.fields is not None:
            values = values[self.cname]

        values = _maybe_convert(values, self.kind, encoding)

        kwargs = dict()
        if self.freq is not None:
            kwargs['freq'] = _ensure_decoded(self.freq)
        if self.index_name is not None:
            kwargs['name'] = _ensure_decoded(self.index_name)
        try:
            self.values = Index(values, **kwargs)
        except:

            # if the output freq is different that what we recorded,
            # it should be None (see also 'doc example part 2')
            if 'freq' in kwargs:
                kwargs['freq'] = None
            self.values = Index(values, **kwargs)

        self.values = _set_tz(self.values, self.tz)

        return self

    def take_data(self):
        """ return the values & release the memory """
        self.values, values = None, self.values
        return values

    @property
    def attrs(self):
        return self.table._v_attrs

    @property
    def description(self):
        return self.table.description

    @property
    def col(self):
        """ return my current col description """
        return getattr(self.description, self.cname, None)

    @property
    def cvalues(self):
        """ return my cython values """
        return self.values

    def __iter__(self):
        return iter(self.values)

    def maybe_set_size(self, min_itemsize=None, **kwargs):
        """ maybe set a string col itemsize:
               min_itemsize can be an interger or a dict with this columns name
               with an integer size """
        if _ensure_decoded(self.kind) == u('string'):

            if isinstance(min_itemsize, dict):
                min_itemsize = min_itemsize.get(self.name)

            if min_itemsize is not None and self.typ.itemsize < min_itemsize:
                self.typ = _tables(
                ).StringCol(itemsize=min_itemsize, pos=self.pos)

    def validate(self, handler, append, **kwargs):
        self.validate_names()

    def validate_names(self):
        pass

    def validate_and_set(self, handler, append, **kwargs):
        self.set_table(handler.table)
        self.validate_col()
        self.validate_attr(append)
        self.validate_metadata(handler)
        self.write_metadata(handler)
        self.set_attr()

    def validate_col(self, itemsize=None):
        """ validate this column: return the compared against itemsize """

        # validate this column for string truncation (or reset to the max size)
        if _ensure_decoded(self.kind) == u('string'):
            c = self.col
            if c is not None:
                if itemsize is None:
                    itemsize = self.itemsize
                if c.itemsize < itemsize:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "Trying to store a string with len [%s] in [%s] "
                        "column but\nthis column has a limit of [%s]!\n"
                        "Consider using min_itemsize to preset the sizes on "
                        "these columns" % (itemsize, self.cname, c.itemsize))
                return c.itemsize

        return None

    def validate_attr(self, append):
        # check for backwards incompatibility
        if append:
            existing_kind = getattr(self.attrs, self.kind_attr, None)
            if existing_kind is not None and existing_kind != self.kind:
                raise TypeError("incompatible kind in col [%s - %s]" %
                                (existing_kind, self.kind))

    def update_info(self, info):
        """ set/update the info for this indexable with the key/value
            if there is a conflict raise/warn as needed """

        for key in self._info_fields:

            value = getattr(self, key, None)
            idx = _get_info(info, self.name)

            existing_value = idx.get(key)
            if key in idx and value is not None and existing_value != value:

                # frequency/name just warn
                if key in ['freq', 'index_name']:
                    ws = attribute_conflict_doc % (key, existing_value, value)
                    warnings.warn(ws, AttributeConflictWarning, stacklevel=6)

                    # reset
                    idx[key] = None
                    setattr(self, key, None)

                else:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "invalid info for [%s] for [%s], existing_value [%s] "
                        "conflicts with new value [%s]"
                        % (self.name, key, existing_value, value))
            else:
                if value is not None or existing_value is not None:
                    idx[key] = value

        return self

    def set_info(self, info):
        """ set my state from the passed info """
        idx = info.get(self.name)
        if idx is not None:
            self.__dict__.update(idx)

    def get_attr(self):
        """ set the kind for this colummn """
        self.kind = getattr(self.attrs, self.kind_attr, None)

    def set_attr(self):
        """ set the kind for this colummn """
        setattr(self.attrs, self.kind_attr, self.kind)

    def read_metadata(self, handler):
        """ retrieve the metadata for this columns """
        self.metadata = handler.read_metadata(self.cname)

    def validate_metadata(self, handler):
        """ validate that kind=category does not change the categories """
        if self.meta == 'category':
            new_metadata = self.metadata
            cur_metadata = handler.read_metadata(self.cname)
            if new_metadata is not None and cur_metadata is not None \
                    and not array_equivalent(new_metadata, cur_metadata):
                raise ValueError("cannot append a categorical with "
                                 "different categories to the existing")

    def write_metadata(self, handler):
        """ set the meta data """
        if self.metadata is not None:
            handler.write_metadata(self.cname, self.metadata)


class GenericIndexCol(IndexCol):

    """ an index which is not represented in the data of the table """

    @property
    def is_indexed(self):
        return False

    def convert(self, values, nan_rep, encoding):
        """ set the values from this selection: take = take ownership """

        self.values = Int64Index(np.arange(self.table.nrows))
        return self

    def get_attr(self):
        pass

    def set_attr(self):
        pass


class DataCol(IndexCol):

    """ a data holding column, by definition this is not indexable

        Parameters
        ----------

        data   : the actual data
        cname  : the column name in the table to hold the data (typically
                 values)
        meta   : a string description of the metadata
        metadata : the actual metadata
        """
    is_an_indexable = False
    is_data_indexable = False
    _info_fields = ['tz', 'ordered']

    @classmethod
    def create_for_block(
            cls, i=None, name=None, cname=None, version=None, **kwargs):
        """ return a new datacol with the block i """

        if cname is None:
            cname = name or 'values_block_%d' % i
        if name is None:
            name = cname

        # prior to 0.10.1, we named values blocks like: values_block_0 an the
        # name values_0
        try:
            if version[0] == 0 and version[1] <= 10 and version[2] == 0:
                m = re.search("values_block_(\d+)", name)
                if m:
                    name = "values_%s" % m.groups()[0]
        except:
            pass

        return cls(name=name, cname=cname, **kwargs)

    def __init__(self, values=None, kind=None, typ=None,
                 cname=None, data=None, meta=None, metadata=None,
                 block=None, **kwargs):
        super(DataCol, self).__init__(values=values, kind=kind, typ=typ,
                                      cname=cname, **kwargs)
        self.dtype = None
        self.dtype_attr = u("%s_dtype" % self.name)
        self.meta = meta
        self.meta_attr = u("%s_meta" % self.name)
        self.set_data(data)
        self.set_metadata(metadata)

    def __unicode__(self):
        temp = tuple(
            map(pprint_thing,
                    (self.name,
                     self.cname,
                     self.dtype,
                     self.kind,
                     self.shape)))
        return "name->%s,cname->%s,dtype->%s,kind->%s,shape->%s" % temp

    def __eq__(self, other):
        """ compare 2 col items """
        return all([getattr(self, a, None) == getattr(other, a, None)
                    for a in ['name', 'cname', 'dtype', 'pos']])

    def set_data(self, data, dtype=None):
        self.data = data
        if data is not None:
            if dtype is not None:
                self.dtype = dtype
                self.set_kind()
            elif self.dtype is None:
                self.dtype = data.dtype.name
                self.set_kind()

    def take_data(self):
        """ return the data & release the memory """
        self.data, data = None, self.data
        return data

    def set_metadata(self, metadata):
        """ record the metadata """
        if metadata is not None:
            metadata = np.array(metadata, copy=False).ravel()
        self.metadata = metadata

    def set_kind(self):
        # set my kind if we can

        if self.dtype is not None:
            dtype = _ensure_decoded(self.dtype)

            if dtype.startswith(u('string')) or dtype.startswith(u('bytes')):
                self.kind = 'string'
            elif dtype.startswith(u('float')):
                self.kind = 'float'
            elif dtype.startswith(u('complex')):
                self.kind = 'complex'
            elif dtype.startswith(u('int')) or dtype.startswith(u('uint')):
                self.kind = 'integer'
            elif dtype.startswith(u('date')):
                self.kind = 'datetime'
            elif dtype.startswith(u('timedelta')):
                self.kind = 'timedelta'
            elif dtype.startswith(u('bool')):
                self.kind = 'bool'
            else:
                raise AssertionError(
                    "cannot interpret dtype of [%s] in [%s]" % (dtype, self))

            # set my typ if we need
            if self.typ is None:
                self.typ = getattr(self.description, self.cname, None)

    def set_atom(self, block, block_items, existing_col, min_itemsize,
                 nan_rep, info, encoding=None, **kwargs):
        """ create and setup my atom from the block b """

        self.values = list(block_items)

        # short-cut certain block types
        if block.is_categorical:
            return self.set_atom_categorical(block, items=block_items,
                                             info=info)
        elif block.is_datetimetz:
            return self.set_atom_datetime64tz(block, info=info)
        elif block.is_datetime:
            return self.set_atom_datetime64(block)
        elif block.is_timedelta:
            return self.set_atom_timedelta64(block)
        elif block.is_complex:
            return self.set_atom_complex(block)

        dtype = block.dtype.name
        inferred_type = lib.infer_dtype(block.values)

        if inferred_type == 'date':
            raise TypeError(
                "[date] is not implemented as a table column")
        elif inferred_type == 'datetime':
            # after 8260
            # this only would be hit for a mutli-timezone dtype
            # which is an error

            raise TypeError(
                "too many timezones in this block, create separate "
                "data columns"
            )
        elif inferred_type == 'unicode':
            raise TypeError(
                "[unicode] is not implemented as a table column")

        # this is basically a catchall; if say a datetime64 has nans then will
        # end up here ###
        elif inferred_type == 'string' or dtype == 'object':
            self.set_atom_string(
                block, block_items,
                existing_col,
                min_itemsize,
                nan_rep,
                encoding)

        # set as a data block
        else:
            self.set_atom_data(block)

    def get_atom_string(self, block, itemsize):
        return _tables().StringCol(itemsize=itemsize, shape=block.shape[0])

    def set_atom_string(self, block, block_items, existing_col, min_itemsize,
                        nan_rep, encoding):
        # fill nan items with myself, don't disturb the blocks by
        # trying to downcast
        block = block.fillna(nan_rep, downcast=False)
        if isinstance(block, list):
            block = block[0]
        data = block.values

        # see if we have a valid string type
        inferred_type = lib.infer_dtype(data.ravel())
        if inferred_type != 'string':

            # we cannot serialize this data, so report an exception on a column
            # by column basis
            for i, item in enumerate(block_items):

                col = block.iget(i)
                inferred_type = lib.infer_dtype(col.ravel())
                if inferred_type != 'string':
                    raise TypeError(
                        "Cannot serialize the column [%s] because\n"
                        "its data contents are [%s] object dtype"
                        % (item, inferred_type)
                    )

        # itemsize is the maximum length of a string (along any dimension)
        data_converted = _convert_string_array(data, encoding)
        itemsize = data_converted.itemsize

        # specified min_itemsize?
        if isinstance(min_itemsize, dict):
            min_itemsize = int(min_itemsize.get(
                self.name) or min_itemsize.get('values') or 0)
        itemsize = max(min_itemsize or 0, itemsize)

        # check for column in the values conflicts
        if existing_col is not None:
            eci = existing_col.validate_col(itemsize)
            if eci > itemsize:
                itemsize = eci

        self.itemsize = itemsize
        self.kind = 'string'
        self.typ = self.get_atom_string(block, itemsize)
        self.set_data(data_converted.astype('|S%d' % itemsize, copy=False))

    def get_atom_coltype(self, kind=None):
        """ return the PyTables column class for this column """
        if kind is None:
            kind = self.kind
        if self.kind.startswith('uint'):
            col_name = "UInt%sCol" % kind[4:]
        else:
            col_name = "%sCol" % kind.capitalize()

        return getattr(_tables(), col_name)

    def get_atom_data(self, block, kind=None):
        return self.get_atom_coltype(kind=kind)(shape=block.shape[0])

    def set_atom_complex(self, block):
        self.kind = block.dtype.name
        itemsize = int(self.kind.split('complex')[-1]) // 8
        self.typ = _tables().ComplexCol(
            itemsize=itemsize, shape=block.shape[0])
        self.set_data(block.values.astype(self.typ.type, copy=False))

    def set_atom_data(self, block):
        self.kind = block.dtype.name
        self.typ = self.get_atom_data(block)
        self.set_data(block.values.astype(self.typ.type, copy=False))

    def set_atom_categorical(self, block, items, info=None, values=None):
        # currently only supports a 1-D categorical
        # in a 1-D block

        values = block.values
        codes = values.codes
        self.kind = 'integer'
        self.dtype = codes.dtype.name
        if values.ndim > 1:
            raise NotImplementedError("only support 1-d categoricals")
        if len(items) > 1:
            raise NotImplementedError("only support single block categoricals")

        # write the codes; must be in a block shape
        self.ordered = values.ordered
        self.typ = self.get_atom_data(block, kind=codes.dtype.name)
        self.set_data(_block_shape(codes))

        # write the categories
        self.meta = 'category'
        self.set_metadata(block.values.categories)

        # update the info
        self.update_info(info)

    def get_atom_datetime64(self, block):
        return _tables().Int64Col(shape=block.shape[0])

    def set_atom_datetime64(self, block, values=None):
        self.kind = 'datetime64'
        self.typ = self.get_atom_datetime64(block)
        if values is None:
            values = block.values.view('i8')
        self.set_data(values, 'datetime64')

    def set_atom_datetime64tz(self, block, info, values=None):

        if values is None:
            values = block.values

        # convert this column to i8 in UTC, and save the tz
        values = values.asi8.reshape(block.shape)

        # store a converted timezone
        self.tz = _get_tz(block.values.tz)
        self.update_info(info)

        self.kind = 'datetime64'
        self.typ = self.get_atom_datetime64(block)
        self.set_data(values, 'datetime64')

    def get_atom_timedelta64(self, block):
        return _tables().Int64Col(shape=block.shape[0])

    def set_atom_timedelta64(self, block, values=None):
        self.kind = 'timedelta64'
        self.typ = self.get_atom_timedelta64(block)
        if values is None:
            values = block.values.view('i8')
        self.set_data(values, 'timedelta64')

    @property
    def shape(self):
        return getattr(self.data, 'shape', None)

    @property
    def cvalues(self):
        """ return my cython values """
        return self.data

    def validate_attr(self, append):
        """validate that we have the same order as the existing & same dtype"""
        if append:
            existing_fields = getattr(self.attrs, self.kind_attr, None)
            if (existing_fields is not None and
                    existing_fields != list(self.values)):
                raise ValueError("appended items do not match existing items"
                                 " in table!")

            existing_dtype = getattr(self.attrs, self.dtype_attr, None)
            if (existing_dtype is not None and
                    existing_dtype != self.dtype):
                raise ValueError("appended items dtype do not match existing "
                                 "items dtype in table!")

    def convert(self, values, nan_rep, encoding):
        """set the data from this selection (and convert to the correct dtype
        if we can)
        """

        # values is a recarray
        if values.dtype.fields is not None:
            values = values[self.cname]

        self.set_data(values)

        # use the meta if needed
        meta = _ensure_decoded(self.meta)

        # convert to the correct dtype
        if self.dtype is not None:
            dtype = _ensure_decoded(self.dtype)

            # reverse converts
            if dtype == u('datetime64'):

                # recreate with tz if indicated
                self.data = _set_tz(self.data, self.tz, coerce=True)

            elif dtype == u('timedelta64'):
                self.data = np.asarray(self.data, dtype='m8[ns]')
            elif dtype == u('date'):
                try:
                    self.data = np.asarray(
                        [date.fromordinal(v) for v in self.data], dtype=object)
                except ValueError:
                    self.data = np.asarray(
                        [date.fromtimestamp(v) for v in self.data],
                        dtype=object)
            elif dtype == u('datetime'):
                self.data = np.asarray(
                    [datetime.fromtimestamp(v) for v in self.data],
                    dtype=object)

            elif meta == u('category'):

                # we have a categorical
                categories = self.metadata
                codes = self.data.ravel()

                # if we have stored a NaN in the categories
                # then strip it; in theory we could have BOTH
                # -1s in the codes and nulls :<
                mask = isnull(categories)
                if mask.any():
                    categories = categories[~mask]
                    codes[codes != -1] -= mask.astype(int).cumsum().values

                self.data = Categorical.from_codes(codes,
                                                   categories=categories,
                                                   ordered=self.ordered)

            else:

                try:
                    self.data = self.data.astype(dtype, copy=False)
                except:
                    self.data = self.data.astype('O', copy=False)

        # convert nans / decode
        if _ensure_decoded(self.kind) == u('string'):
            self.data = _unconvert_string_array(
                self.data, nan_rep=nan_rep, encoding=encoding)

        return self

    def get_attr(self):
        """ get the data for this colummn """
        self.values = getattr(self.attrs, self.kind_attr, None)
        self.dtype = getattr(self.attrs, self.dtype_attr, None)
        self.meta = getattr(self.attrs, self.meta_attr, None)
        self.set_kind()

    def set_attr(self):
        """ set the data for this colummn """
        setattr(self.attrs, self.kind_attr, self.values)
        setattr(self.attrs, self.meta_attr, self.meta)
        if self.dtype is not None:
            setattr(self.attrs, self.dtype_attr, self.dtype)


class DataIndexableCol(DataCol):

    """ represent a data column that can be indexed """
    is_data_indexable = True

    def validate_names(self):
        if not Index(self.values).is_object():
            raise ValueError("cannot have non-object label DataIndexableCol")

    def get_atom_string(self, block, itemsize):
        return _tables().StringCol(itemsize=itemsize)

    def get_atom_data(self, block, kind=None):
        return self.get_atom_coltype(kind=kind)()

    def get_atom_datetime64(self, block):
        return _tables().Int64Col()

    def get_atom_timedelta64(self, block):
        return _tables().Int64Col()


class GenericDataIndexableCol(DataIndexableCol):

    """ represent a generic pytables data column """

    def get_attr(self):
        pass


class Fixed(StringMixin):

    """ represent an object in my store
        facilitate read/write of various types of objects
        this is an abstract base class

        Parameters
        ----------

        parent : my parent HDFStore
        group  : the group node where the table resides
        """
    pandas_kind = None
    obj_type = None
    ndim = None
    is_table = False

    def __init__(self, parent, group, encoding=None, **kwargs):
        self.parent = parent
        self.group = group
        self.encoding = _ensure_encoding(encoding)
        self.set_version()

    @property
    def is_old_version(self):
        return (self.version[0] <= 0 and self.version[1] <= 10 and
                self.version[2] < 1)

    def set_version(self):
        """ compute and set our version """
        version = _ensure_decoded(
            getattr(self.group._v_attrs, 'pandas_version', None))
        try:
            self.version = tuple([int(x) for x in version.split('.')])
            if len(self.version) == 2:
                self.version = self.version + (0,)
        except:
            self.version = (0, 0, 0)

    @property
    def pandas_type(self):
        return _ensure_decoded(getattr(self.group._v_attrs,
                                       'pandas_type', None))

    @property
    def format_type(self):
        return 'fixed'

    def __unicode__(self):
        """ return a pretty representation of myself """
        self.infer_axes()
        s = self.shape
        if s is not None:
            if isinstance(s, (list, tuple)):
                s = "[%s]" % ','.join([pprint_thing(x) for x in s])
            return "%-12.12s (shape->%s)" % (self.pandas_type, s)
        return self.pandas_type

    def set_object_info(self):
        """ set my pandas type & version """
        self.attrs.pandas_type = str(self.pandas_kind)
        self.attrs.pandas_version = str(_version)
        self.set_version()

    def copy(self):
        new_self = copy.copy(self)
        return new_self

    @property
    def storage_obj_type(self):
        return self.obj_type

    @property
    def shape(self):
        return self.nrows

    @property
    def pathname(self):
        return self.group._v_pathname

    @property
    def _handle(self):
        return self.parent._handle

    @property
    def _filters(self):
        return self.parent._filters

    @property
    def _complevel(self):
        return self.parent._complevel

    @property
    def _fletcher32(self):
        return self.parent._fletcher32

    @property
    def _complib(self):
        return self.parent._complib

    @property
    def attrs(self):
        return self.group._v_attrs

    def set_attrs(self):
        """ set our object attributes """
        pass

    def get_attrs(self):
        """ get our object attributes """
        pass

    @property
    def storable(self):
        """ return my storable """
        return self.group

    @property
    def is_exists(self):
        return False

    @property
    def nrows(self):
        return getattr(self.storable, 'nrows', None)

    def validate(self, other):
        """ validate against an existing storable """
        if other is None:
            return
        return True

    def validate_version(self, where=None):
        """ are we trying to operate on an old version? """
        return True

    def infer_axes(self):
        """ infer the axes of my storer
              return a boolean indicating if we have a valid storer or not """

        s = self.storable
        if s is None:
            return False
        self.get_attrs()
        return True

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        raise NotImplementedError(
            "cannot read on an abstract storer: subclasses should implement")

    def write(self, **kwargs):
        raise NotImplementedError(
            "cannot write on an abstract storer: sublcasses should implement")

    def delete(self, where=None, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):
        """
        support fully deleting the node in its entirety (only) - where
        specification must be None
        """
        if where is None and start is None and stop is None:
            self._handle.remove_node(self.group, recursive=True)
            return None

        raise TypeError("cannot delete on an abstract storer")


class GenericFixed(Fixed):

    """ a generified fixed version """
    _index_type_map = {DatetimeIndex: 'datetime', PeriodIndex: 'period'}
    _reverse_index_map = dict([(v, k)
                               for k, v in compat.iteritems(_index_type_map)])
    attributes = []

    # indexer helpders
    def _class_to_alias(self, cls):
        return self._index_type_map.get(cls, '')

    def _alias_to_class(self, alias):
        if isinstance(alias, type):  # pragma: no cover
            # compat: for a short period of time master stored types
            return alias
        return self._reverse_index_map.get(alias, Index)

    def _get_index_factory(self, klass):
        if klass == DatetimeIndex:
            def f(values, freq=None, tz=None):
                return DatetimeIndex._simple_new(values, None, freq=freq,
                                                 tz=tz)
            return f
        elif klass == PeriodIndex:
            def f(values, freq=None, tz=None):
                return PeriodIndex._simple_new(values, None, freq=freq)
            return f

        return klass

    def validate_read(self, kwargs):
        """
        remove table keywords from kwargs and return
        raise if any keywords are passed which are not-None
        """
        kwargs = copy.copy(kwargs)

        columns = kwargs.pop('columns', None)
        if columns is not None:
            raise TypeError("cannot pass a column specification when reading "
                            "a Fixed format store. this store must be "
                            "selected in its entirety")
        where = kwargs.pop('where', None)
        if where is not None:
            raise TypeError("cannot pass a where specification when reading "
                            "from a Fixed format store. this store must be "
                            "selected in its entirety")
        return kwargs

    @property
    def is_exists(self):
        return True

    def set_attrs(self):
        """ set our object attributes """
        self.attrs.encoding = self.encoding

    def get_attrs(self):
        """ retrieve our attributes """
        self.encoding = _ensure_encoding(getattr(self.attrs, 'encoding', None))
        for n in self.attributes:
            setattr(self, n, _ensure_decoded(getattr(self.attrs, n, None)))

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        self.set_attrs()

    def read_array(self, key, start=None, stop=None):
        """ read an array for the specified node (off of group """
        import tables
        node = getattr(self.group, key)
        data = node[start:stop]
        attrs = node._v_attrs

        transposed = getattr(attrs, 'transposed', False)

        if isinstance(node, tables.VLArray):
            ret = data[0]
        else:
            dtype = getattr(attrs, 'value_type', None)
            shape = getattr(attrs, 'shape', None)

            if shape is not None:
                # length 0 axis
                ret = np.empty(shape, dtype=dtype)
            else:
                ret = data

            if dtype == u('datetime64'):

                # reconstruct a timezone if indicated
                ret = _set_tz(ret, getattr(attrs, 'tz', None), coerce=True)

            elif dtype == u('timedelta64'):
                ret = np.asarray(ret, dtype='m8[ns]')

        if transposed:
            return ret.T
        else:
            return ret

    def read_index(self, key, **kwargs):
        variety = _ensure_decoded(getattr(self.attrs, '%s_variety' % key))

        if variety == u('multi'):
            return self.read_multi_index(key, **kwargs)
        elif variety == u('block'):
            return self.read_block_index(key, **kwargs)
        elif variety == u('sparseint'):
            return self.read_sparse_intindex(key, **kwargs)
        elif variety == u('regular'):
            _, index = self.read_index_node(getattr(self.group, key), **kwargs)
            return index
        else:  # pragma: no cover
            raise TypeError('unrecognized index variety: %s' % variety)

    def write_index(self, key, index):
        if isinstance(index, MultiIndex):
            setattr(self.attrs, '%s_variety' % key, 'multi')
            self.write_multi_index(key, index)
        elif isinstance(index, BlockIndex):
            setattr(self.attrs, '%s_variety' % key, 'block')
            self.write_block_index(key, index)
        elif isinstance(index, IntIndex):
            setattr(self.attrs, '%s_variety' % key, 'sparseint')
            self.write_sparse_intindex(key, index)
        else:
            setattr(self.attrs, '%s_variety' % key, 'regular')
            converted = _convert_index(index, self.encoding,
                                       self.format_type).set_name('index')

            self.write_array(key, converted.values)

            node = getattr(self.group, key)
            node._v_attrs.kind = converted.kind
            node._v_attrs.name = index.name

            if isinstance(index, (DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex)):
                node._v_attrs.index_class = self._class_to_alias(type(index))

            if hasattr(index, 'freq'):
                node._v_attrs.freq = index.freq

            if hasattr(index, 'tz') and index.tz is not None:
                node._v_attrs.tz = _get_tz(index.tz)

    def write_block_index(self, key, index):
        self.write_array('%s_blocs' % key, index.blocs)
        self.write_array('%s_blengths' % key, index.blengths)
        setattr(self.attrs, '%s_length' % key, index.length)

    def read_block_index(self, key, **kwargs):
        length = getattr(self.attrs, '%s_length' % key)
        blocs = self.read_array('%s_blocs' % key, **kwargs)
        blengths = self.read_array('%s_blengths' % key, **kwargs)
        return BlockIndex(length, blocs, blengths)

    def write_sparse_intindex(self, key, index):
        self.write_array('%s_indices' % key, index.indices)
        setattr(self.attrs, '%s_length' % key, index.length)

    def read_sparse_intindex(self, key, **kwargs):
        length = getattr(self.attrs, '%s_length' % key)
        indices = self.read_array('%s_indices' % key, **kwargs)
        return IntIndex(length, indices)

    def write_multi_index(self, key, index):
        setattr(self.attrs, '%s_nlevels' % key, index.nlevels)

        for i, (lev, lab, name) in enumerate(zip(index.levels,
                                                 index.labels,
                                                 index.names)):
            # write the level
            level_key = '%s_level%d' % (key, i)
            conv_level = _convert_index(lev, self.encoding,
                                        self.format_type).set_name(level_key)
            self.write_array(level_key, conv_level.values)
            node = getattr(self.group, level_key)
            node._v_attrs.kind = conv_level.kind
            node._v_attrs.name = name

            # write the name
            setattr(node._v_attrs, '%s_name%d' % (key, i), name)

            # write the labels
            label_key = '%s_label%d' % (key, i)
            self.write_array(label_key, lab)

    def read_multi_index(self, key, **kwargs):
        nlevels = getattr(self.attrs, '%s_nlevels' % key)

        levels = []
        labels = []
        names = []
        for i in range(nlevels):
            level_key = '%s_level%d' % (key, i)
            name, lev = self.read_index_node(getattr(self.group, level_key),
                                             **kwargs)
            levels.append(lev)
            names.append(name)

            label_key = '%s_label%d' % (key, i)
            lab = self.read_array(label_key, **kwargs)
            labels.append(lab)

        return MultiIndex(levels=levels, labels=labels, names=names,
                          verify_integrity=True)

    def read_index_node(self, node, start=None, stop=None):
        data = node[start:stop]
        # If the index was an empty array write_array_empty() will
        # have written a sentinel. Here we relace it with the original.
        if ('shape' in node._v_attrs and
                self._is_empty_array(getattr(node._v_attrs, 'shape'))):
            data = np.empty(getattr(node._v_attrs, 'shape'),
                            dtype=getattr(node._v_attrs, 'value_type'))
        kind = _ensure_decoded(node._v_attrs.kind)
        name = None

        if 'name' in node._v_attrs:
            name = node._v_attrs.name

        index_class = self._alias_to_class(getattr(node._v_attrs,
                                                   'index_class', ''))
        factory = self._get_index_factory(index_class)

        kwargs = {}
        if u('freq') in node._v_attrs:
            kwargs['freq'] = node._v_attrs['freq']

        if u('tz') in node._v_attrs:
            kwargs['tz'] = node._v_attrs['tz']

        if kind in (u('date'), u('datetime')):
            index = factory(_unconvert_index(data, kind,
                                             encoding=self.encoding),
                            dtype=object, **kwargs)
        else:
            index = factory(_unconvert_index(data, kind,
                                             encoding=self.encoding), **kwargs)

        index.name = name

        return name, index

    def write_array_empty(self, key, value):
        """ write a 0-len array """

        # ugly hack for length 0 axes
        arr = np.empty((1,) * value.ndim)
        self._handle.create_array(self.group, key, arr)
        getattr(self.group, key)._v_attrs.value_type = str(value.dtype)
        getattr(self.group, key)._v_attrs.shape = value.shape

    def _is_empty_array(self, shape):
        """Returns true if any axis is zero length."""
        return any(x == 0 for x in shape)

    def write_array(self, key, value, items=None):
        if key in self.group:
            self._handle.remove_node(self.group, key)

        # Transform needed to interface with pytables row/col notation
        empty_array = self._is_empty_array(value.shape)
        transposed = False

        if is_categorical_dtype(value):
            raise NotImplementedError('Cannot store a category dtype in '
                                      'a HDF5 dataset that uses format='
                                      '"fixed". Use format="table".')

        if not empty_array:
            value = value.T
            transposed = True

        if self._filters is not None:
            atom = None
            try:
                # get the atom for this datatype
                atom = _tables().Atom.from_dtype(value.dtype)
            except ValueError:
                pass

            if atom is not None:
                # create an empty chunked array and fill it from value
                if not empty_array:
                    ca = self._handle.create_carray(self.group, key, atom,
                                                    value.shape,
                                                    filters=self._filters)
                    ca[:] = value
                    getattr(self.group, key)._v_attrs.transposed = transposed

                else:
                    self.write_array_empty(key, value)

                return

        if value.dtype.type == np.object_:

            # infer the type, warn if we have a non-string type here (for
            # performance)
            inferred_type = lib.infer_dtype(value.ravel())
            if empty_array:
                pass
            elif inferred_type == 'string':
                pass
            else:
                try:
                    items = list(items)
                except:
                    pass
                ws = performance_doc % (inferred_type, key, items)
                warnings.warn(ws, PerformanceWarning, stacklevel=7)

            vlarr = self._handle.create_vlarray(self.group, key,
                                                _tables().ObjectAtom())
            vlarr.append(value)
        else:
            if empty_array:
                self.write_array_empty(key, value)
            else:
                if is_datetime64_dtype(value.dtype):
                    self._handle.create_array(
                        self.group, key, value.view('i8'))
                    getattr(
                        self.group, key)._v_attrs.value_type = 'datetime64'
                elif is_datetime64tz_dtype(value.dtype):
                    # store as UTC
                    # with a zone
                    self._handle.create_array(self.group, key,
                                              value.asi8)

                    node = getattr(self.group, key)
                    node._v_attrs.tz = _get_tz(value.tz)
                    node._v_attrs.value_type = 'datetime64'
                elif is_timedelta64_dtype(value.dtype):
                    self._handle.create_array(
                        self.group, key, value.view('i8'))
                    getattr(
                        self.group, key)._v_attrs.value_type = 'timedelta64'
                else:
                    self._handle.create_array(self.group, key, value)

        getattr(self.group, key)._v_attrs.transposed = transposed


class LegacyFixed(GenericFixed):

    def read_index_legacy(self, key, start=None, stop=None):
        node = getattr(self.group, key)
        data = node[start:stop]
        kind = node._v_attrs.kind
        return _unconvert_index_legacy(data, kind, encoding=self.encoding)


class LegacySeriesFixed(LegacyFixed):

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        kwargs = self.validate_read(kwargs)
        index = self.read_index_legacy('index')
        values = self.read_array('values')
        return Series(values, index=index)


class LegacyFrameFixed(LegacyFixed):

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        kwargs = self.validate_read(kwargs)
        index = self.read_index_legacy('index')
        columns = self.read_index_legacy('columns')
        values = self.read_array('values')
        return DataFrame(values, index=index, columns=columns)


class SeriesFixed(GenericFixed):
    pandas_kind = u('series')
    attributes = ['name']

    @property
    def shape(self):
        try:
            return len(getattr(self.group, 'values')),
        except:
            return None

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        kwargs = self.validate_read(kwargs)
        index = self.read_index('index', **kwargs)
        values = self.read_array('values', **kwargs)
        return Series(values, index=index, name=self.name)

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        super(SeriesFixed, self).write(obj, **kwargs)
        self.write_index('index', obj.index)
        self.write_array('values', obj.values)
        self.attrs.name = obj.name


class SparseFixed(GenericFixed):

    def validate_read(self, kwargs):
        """
        we don't support start, stop kwds in Sparse
        """
        kwargs = super(SparseFixed, self).validate_read(kwargs)
        if 'start' in kwargs or 'stop' in kwargs:
            raise NotImplementedError("start and/or stop are not supported "
                                      "in fixed Sparse reading")
        return kwargs


class SparseSeriesFixed(SparseFixed):
    pandas_kind = u('sparse_series')
    attributes = ['name', 'fill_value', 'kind']

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        kwargs = self.validate_read(kwargs)
        index = self.read_index('index')
        sp_values = self.read_array('sp_values')
        sp_index = self.read_index('sp_index')
        return SparseSeries(sp_values, index=index, sparse_index=sp_index,
                            kind=self.kind or u('block'),
                            fill_value=self.fill_value,
                            name=self.name)

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        super(SparseSeriesFixed, self).write(obj, **kwargs)
        self.write_index('index', obj.index)
        self.write_index('sp_index', obj.sp_index)
        self.write_array('sp_values', obj.sp_values)
        self.attrs.name = obj.name
        self.attrs.fill_value = obj.fill_value
        self.attrs.kind = obj.kind


class SparseFrameFixed(SparseFixed):
    pandas_kind = u('sparse_frame')
    attributes = ['default_kind', 'default_fill_value']

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        kwargs = self.validate_read(kwargs)
        columns = self.read_index('columns')
        sdict = {}
        for c in columns:
            key = 'sparse_series_%s' % c
            s = SparseSeriesFixed(self.parent, getattr(self.group, key))
            s.infer_axes()
            sdict[c] = s.read()
        return SparseDataFrame(sdict, columns=columns,
                               default_kind=self.default_kind,
                               default_fill_value=self.default_fill_value)

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        """ write it as a collection of individual sparse series """
        super(SparseFrameFixed, self).write(obj, **kwargs)
        for name, ss in compat.iteritems(obj):
            key = 'sparse_series_%s' % name
            if key not in self.group._v_children:
                node = self._handle.create_group(self.group, key)
            else:
                node = getattr(self.group, key)
            s = SparseSeriesFixed(self.parent, node)
            s.write(ss)
        self.attrs.default_fill_value = obj.default_fill_value
        self.attrs.default_kind = obj.default_kind
        self.write_index('columns', obj.columns)


class BlockManagerFixed(GenericFixed):
    attributes = ['ndim', 'nblocks']
    is_shape_reversed = False

    @property
    def shape(self):
        try:
            ndim = self.ndim

            # items
            items = 0
            for i in range(self.nblocks):
                node = getattr(self.group, 'block%d_items' % i)
                shape = getattr(node, 'shape', None)
                if shape is not None:
                    items += shape[0]

            # data shape
            node = getattr(self.group, 'block0_values')
            shape = getattr(node, 'shape', None)
            if shape is not None:
                shape = list(shape[0:(ndim - 1)])
            else:
                shape = []

            shape.append(items)

            # hacky - this works for frames, but is reversed for panels
            if self.is_shape_reversed:
                shape = shape[::-1]

            return shape
        except:
            return None

    def read(self, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):
        # start, stop applied to rows, so 0th axis only

        kwargs = self.validate_read(kwargs)
        select_axis = self.obj_type()._get_block_manager_axis(0)

        axes = []
        for i in range(self.ndim):

            _start, _stop = (start, stop) if i == select_axis else (None, None)
            ax = self.read_index('axis%d' % i, start=_start, stop=_stop)
            axes.append(ax)

        items = axes[0]
        blocks = []
        for i in range(self.nblocks):

            blk_items = self.read_index('block%d_items' % i)
            values = self.read_array('block%d_values' % i,
                                     start=_start, stop=_stop)
            blk = make_block(values,
                             placement=items.get_indexer(blk_items))
            blocks.append(blk)

        return self.obj_type(BlockManager(blocks, axes))

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        super(BlockManagerFixed, self).write(obj, **kwargs)
        data = obj._data
        if not data.is_consolidated():
            data = data.consolidate()

        self.attrs.ndim = data.ndim
        for i, ax in enumerate(data.axes):
            if i == 0:
                if not ax.is_unique:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "Columns index has to be unique for fixed format")
            self.write_index('axis%d' % i, ax)

        # Supporting mixed-type DataFrame objects...nontrivial
        self.attrs.nblocks = len(data.blocks)
        for i, blk in enumerate(data.blocks):
            # I have no idea why, but writing values before items fixed #2299
            blk_items = data.items.take(blk.mgr_locs)
            self.write_array('block%d_values' % i, blk.values, items=blk_items)
            self.write_index('block%d_items' % i, blk_items)


class FrameFixed(BlockManagerFixed):
    pandas_kind = u('frame')
    obj_type = DataFrame


class PanelFixed(BlockManagerFixed):
    pandas_kind = u('wide')
    obj_type = Panel
    is_shape_reversed = True

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        obj._consolidate_inplace()
        return super(PanelFixed, self).write(obj, **kwargs)


class Table(Fixed):

    """ represent a table:
          facilitate read/write of various types of tables

        Attrs in Table Node
        -------------------
        These are attributes that are store in the main table node, they are
        necessary to recreate these tables when read back in.

        index_axes    : a list of tuples of the (original indexing axis and
            index column)
        non_index_axes: a list of tuples of the (original index axis and
            columns on a non-indexing axis)
        values_axes   : a list of the columns which comprise the data of this
            table
        data_columns  : a list of the columns that we are allowing indexing
            (these become single columns in values_axes), or True to force all
            columns
        nan_rep       : the string to use for nan representations for string
            objects
        levels        : the names of levels
        metadata      : the names of the metadata columns

        """
    pandas_kind = u('wide_table')
    table_type = None
    levels = 1
    is_table = True
    is_shape_reversed = False

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        super(Table, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
        self.index_axes = []
        self.non_index_axes = []
        self.values_axes = []
        self.data_columns = []
        self.metadata = []
        self.info = dict()
        self.nan_rep = None
        self.selection = None

    @property
    def table_type_short(self):
        return self.table_type.split('_')[0]

    @property
    def format_type(self):
        return 'table'

    def __unicode__(self):
        """ return a pretty representatgion of myself """
        self.infer_axes()
        dc = ",dc->[%s]" % ','.join(
            self.data_columns) if len(self.data_columns) else ''

        ver = ''
        if self.is_old_version:
            ver = "[%s]" % '.'.join([str(x) for x in self.version])

        return "%-12.12s%s (typ->%s,nrows->%s,ncols->%s,indexers->[%s]%s)" % (
            self.pandas_type, ver, self.table_type_short, self.nrows,
            self.ncols, ','.join([a.name for a in self.index_axes]), dc
        )

    def __getitem__(self, c):
        """ return the axis for c """
        for a in self.axes:
            if c == a.name:
                return a
        return None

    def validate(self, other):
        """ validate against an existing table """
        if other is None:
            return

        if other.table_type != self.table_type:
            raise TypeError("incompatible table_type with existing [%s - %s]" %
                            (other.table_type, self.table_type))

        for c in ['index_axes', 'non_index_axes', 'values_axes']:
            sv = getattr(self, c, None)
            ov = getattr(other, c, None)
            if sv != ov:

                # show the error for the specific axes
                for i, sax in enumerate(sv):
                    oax = ov[i]
                    if sax != oax:
                        raise ValueError(
                            "invalid combinate of [%s] on appending data [%s] "
                            "vs current table [%s]" % (c, sax, oax))

                # should never get here
                raise Exception(
                    "invalid combinate of [%s] on appending data [%s] vs "
                    "current table [%s]" % (c, sv, ov))

    @property
    def is_multi_index(self):
        """the levels attribute is 1 or a list in the case of a multi-index"""
        return isinstance(self.levels, list)

    def validate_metadata(self, existing):
        """ create / validate metadata """
        self.metadata = [
            c.name for c in self.values_axes if c.metadata is not None]

    def validate_multiindex(self, obj):
        """validate that we can store the multi-index; reset and return the
        new object
        """
        levels = [l if l is not None else "level_{0}".format(i)
                  for i, l in enumerate(obj.index.names)]
        try:
            return obj.reset_index(), levels
        except ValueError:
            raise ValueError("duplicate names/columns in the multi-index when "
                             "storing as a table")

    @property
    def nrows_expected(self):
        """ based on our axes, compute the expected nrows """
        return np.prod([i.cvalues.shape[0] for i in self.index_axes])

    @property
    def is_exists(self):
        """ has this table been created """
        return u('table') in self.group

    @property
    def storable(self):
        return getattr(self.group, 'table', None)

    @property
    def table(self):
        """ return the table group (this is my storable) """
        return self.storable

    @property
    def dtype(self):
        return self.table.dtype

    @property
    def description(self):
        return self.table.description

    @property
    def axes(self):
        return itertools.chain(self.index_axes, self.values_axes)

    @property
    def ncols(self):
        """ the number of total columns in the values axes """
        return sum([len(a.values) for a in self.values_axes])

    @property
    def is_transposed(self):
        return False

    @property
    def data_orientation(self):
        """return a tuple of my permutated axes, non_indexable at the front"""
        return tuple(itertools.chain([int(a[0]) for a in self.non_index_axes],
                                     [int(a.axis) for a in self.index_axes]))

    def queryables(self):
        """ return a dict of the kinds allowable columns for this object """

        # compute the values_axes queryables
        return dict(
            [(a.cname, a) for a in self.index_axes] +
            [(self.storage_obj_type._AXIS_NAMES[axis], None)
             for axis, values in self.non_index_axes] +
            [(v.cname, v) for v in self.values_axes
             if v.name in set(self.data_columns)]
        )

    def index_cols(self):
        """ return a list of my index cols """
        return [(i.axis, i.cname) for i in self.index_axes]

    def values_cols(self):
        """ return a list of my values cols """
        return [i.cname for i in self.values_axes]

    def _get_metadata_path(self, key):
        """ return the metadata pathname for this key """
        return "{group}/meta/{key}/meta".format(group=self.group._v_pathname,
                                                key=key)

    def write_metadata(self, key, values):
        """
        write out a meta data array to the key as a fixed-format Series

        Parameters
        ----------
        key : string
        values : ndarray

        """
        values = Series(values)
        self.parent.put(self._get_metadata_path(key), values, format='table',
                        encoding=self.encoding, nan_rep=self.nan_rep)

    def read_metadata(self, key):
        """ return the meta data array for this key """
        if getattr(getattr(self.group, 'meta', None), key, None) is not None:
            return self.parent.select(self._get_metadata_path(key))
        return None

    def set_info(self):
        """ update our table index info """
        self.attrs.info = self.info

    def set_attrs(self):
        """ set our table type & indexables """
        self.attrs.table_type = str(self.table_type)
        self.attrs.index_cols = self.index_cols()
        self.attrs.values_cols = self.values_cols()
        self.attrs.non_index_axes = self.non_index_axes
        self.attrs.data_columns = self.data_columns
        self.attrs.nan_rep = self.nan_rep
        self.attrs.encoding = self.encoding
        self.attrs.levels = self.levels
        self.attrs.metadata = self.metadata
        self.set_info()

    def get_attrs(self):
        """ retrieve our attributes """
        self.non_index_axes = getattr(
            self.attrs, 'non_index_axes', None) or []
        self.data_columns = getattr(
            self.attrs, 'data_columns', None) or []
        self.info = getattr(
            self.attrs, 'info', None) or dict()
        self.nan_rep = getattr(self.attrs, 'nan_rep', None)
        self.encoding = _ensure_encoding(
            getattr(self.attrs, 'encoding', None))
        self.levels = getattr(
            self.attrs, 'levels', None) or []
        self.index_axes = [
            a.infer(self) for a in self.indexables if a.is_an_indexable
        ]
        self.values_axes = [
            a.infer(self) for a in self.indexables if not a.is_an_indexable
        ]
        self.metadata = getattr(
            self.attrs, 'metadata', None) or []

    def validate_version(self, where=None):
        """ are we trying to operate on an old version? """
        if where is not None:
            if (self.version[0] <= 0 and self.version[1] <= 10 and
                    self.version[2] < 1):
                ws = incompatibility_doc % '.'.join(
                    [str(x) for x in self.version])
                warnings.warn(ws, IncompatibilityWarning)

    def validate_min_itemsize(self, min_itemsize):
        """validate the min_itemisze doesn't contain items that are not in the
        axes this needs data_columns to be defined
        """
        if min_itemsize is None:
            return
        if not isinstance(min_itemsize, dict):
            return

        q = self.queryables()
        for k, v in min_itemsize.items():

            # ok, apply generally
            if k == 'values':
                continue
            if k not in q:
                raise ValueError(
                    "min_itemsize has the key [%s] which is not an axis or "
                    "data_column" % k)

    @property
    def indexables(self):
        """ create/cache the indexables if they don't exist """
        if self._indexables is None:

            self._indexables = []

            # index columns
            self._indexables.extend([
                IndexCol(name=name, axis=axis, pos=i)
                for i, (axis, name) in enumerate(self.attrs.index_cols)
            ])

            # values columns
            dc = set(self.data_columns)
            base_pos = len(self._indexables)

            def f(i, c):
                klass = DataCol
                if c in dc:
                    klass = DataIndexableCol
                return klass.create_for_block(i=i, name=c, pos=base_pos + i,
                                              version=self.version)

            self._indexables.extend(
                [f(i, c) for i, c in enumerate(self.attrs.values_cols)])

        return self._indexables

    def create_index(self, columns=None, optlevel=None, kind=None):
        """
        Create a pytables index on the specified columns
          note: cannot index Time64Col() or ComplexCol currently;
          PyTables must be >= 3.0

        Parameters
        ----------
        columns : False (don't create an index), True (create all columns
            index), None or list_like (the indexers to index)
        optlevel: optimization level (defaults to 6)
        kind    : kind of index (defaults to 'medium')

        Exceptions
        ----------
        raises if the node is not a table

        """

        if not self.infer_axes():
            return
        if columns is False:
            return

        # index all indexables and data_columns
        if columns is None or columns is True:
            columns = [a.cname for a in self.axes if a.is_data_indexable]
        if not isinstance(columns, (tuple, list)):
            columns = [columns]

        kw = dict()
        if optlevel is not None:
            kw['optlevel'] = optlevel
        if kind is not None:
            kw['kind'] = kind

        table = self.table
        for c in columns:
            v = getattr(table.cols, c, None)
            if v is not None:

                # remove the index if the kind/optlevel have changed
                if v.is_indexed:
                    index = v.index
                    cur_optlevel = index.optlevel
                    cur_kind = index.kind

                    if kind is not None and cur_kind != kind:
                        v.remove_index()
                    else:
                        kw['kind'] = cur_kind

                    if optlevel is not None and cur_optlevel != optlevel:
                        v.remove_index()
                    else:
                        kw['optlevel'] = cur_optlevel

                # create the index
                if not v.is_indexed:
                    if v.type.startswith('complex'):
                        raise TypeError(
                            'Columns containing complex values can be stored '
                            'but cannot'
                            ' be indexed when using table format. Either use '
                            'fixed format, set index=False, or do not include '
                            'the columns containing complex values to '
                            'data_columns when initializing the table.')
                    v.create_index(**kw)

    def read_axes(self, where, **kwargs):
        """create and return the axes sniffed from the table: return boolean
        for success
        """

        # validate the version
        self.validate_version(where)

        # infer the data kind
        if not self.infer_axes():
            return False

        # create the selection
        self.selection = Selection(self, where=where, **kwargs)
        values = self.selection.select()

        # convert the data
        for a in self.axes:
            a.set_info(self.info)
            a.convert(values, nan_rep=self.nan_rep, encoding=self.encoding)

        return True

    def get_object(self, obj):
        """ return the data for this obj """
        return obj

    def validate_data_columns(self, data_columns, min_itemsize):
        """take the input data_columns and min_itemize and create a data
        columns spec
        """

        if not len(self.non_index_axes):
            return []

        axis, axis_labels = self.non_index_axes[0]
        info = self.info.get(axis, dict())
        if info.get('type') == 'MultiIndex' and data_columns:
            raise ValueError("cannot use a multi-index on axis [{0}] with "
                             "data_columns {1}".format(axis, data_columns))

        # evaluate the passed data_columns, True == use all columns
        # take only valide axis labels
        if data_columns is True:
            data_columns = list(axis_labels)
        elif data_columns is None:
            data_columns = []

        # if min_itemsize is a dict, add the keys (exclude 'values')
        if isinstance(min_itemsize, dict):

            existing_data_columns = set(data_columns)
            data_columns.extend([
                k for k in min_itemsize.keys()
                if k != 'values' and k not in existing_data_columns
            ])

        # return valid columns in the order of our axis
        return [c for c in data_columns if c in axis_labels]

    def create_axes(self, axes, obj, validate=True, nan_rep=None,
                    data_columns=None, min_itemsize=None, **kwargs):
        """ create and return the axes
        leagcy tables create an indexable column, indexable index,
        non-indexable fields

            Parameters:
            -----------
            axes: a list of the axes in order to create (names or numbers of
                the axes)
            obj : the object to create axes on
            validate: validate the obj against an existing object already
                written
            min_itemsize: a dict of the min size for a column in bytes
            nan_rep : a values to use for string column nan_rep
            encoding : the encoding for string values
            data_columns : a list of columns that we want to create separate to
                allow indexing (or True will force all columns)

        """

        # set the default axes if needed
        if axes is None:
            try:
                axes = _AXES_MAP[type(obj)]
            except:
                raise TypeError("cannot properly create the storer for: "
                                "[group->%s,value->%s]"
                                % (self.group._v_name, type(obj)))

        # map axes to numbers
        axes = [obj._get_axis_number(a) for a in axes]

        # do we have an existing table (if so, use its axes & data_columns)
        if self.infer_axes():
            existing_table = self.copy()
            existing_table.infer_axes()
            axes = [a.axis for a in existing_table.index_axes]
            data_columns = existing_table.data_columns
            nan_rep = existing_table.nan_rep
            self.encoding = existing_table.encoding
            self.info = copy.copy(existing_table.info)
        else:
            existing_table = None

        # currently support on ndim-1 axes
        if len(axes) != self.ndim - 1:
            raise ValueError(
                "currently only support ndim-1 indexers in an AppendableTable")

        # create according to the new data
        self.non_index_axes = []
        self.data_columns = []

        # nan_representation
        if nan_rep is None:
            nan_rep = 'nan'

        self.nan_rep = nan_rep

        # create axes to index and non_index
        index_axes_map = dict()
        for i, a in enumerate(obj.axes):

            if i in axes:
                name = obj._AXIS_NAMES[i]
                index_axes_map[i] = _convert_index(
                    a, self.encoding, self.format_type
                ).set_name(name).set_axis(i)
            else:

                # we might be able to change the axes on the appending data if
                # necessary
                append_axis = list(a)
                if existing_table is not None:
                    indexer = len(self.non_index_axes)
                    exist_axis = existing_table.non_index_axes[indexer][1]
                    if not array_equivalent(np.array(append_axis),
                                            np.array(exist_axis)):

                        # ahah! -> reindex
                        if array_equivalent(np.array(sorted(append_axis)),
                                            np.array(sorted(exist_axis))):
                            append_axis = exist_axis

                # the non_index_axes info
                info = _get_info(self.info, i)
                info['names'] = list(a.names)
                info['type'] = a.__class__.__name__

                self.non_index_axes.append((i, append_axis))

        # set axis positions (based on the axes)
        self.index_axes = [
            index_axes_map[a].set_pos(j).update_info(self.info)
            for j, a in enumerate(axes)
        ]
        j = len(self.index_axes)

        # check for column conflicts
        for a in self.axes:
            a.maybe_set_size(min_itemsize=min_itemsize)

        # reindex by our non_index_axes & compute data_columns
        for a in self.non_index_axes:
            obj = _reindex_axis(obj, a[0], a[1])

        def get_blk_items(mgr, blocks):
            return [mgr.items.take(blk.mgr_locs) for blk in blocks]

        # figure out data_columns and get out blocks
        block_obj = self.get_object(obj)._consolidate()
        blocks = block_obj._data.blocks
        blk_items = get_blk_items(block_obj._data, blocks)
        if len(self.non_index_axes):
            axis, axis_labels = self.non_index_axes[0]
            data_columns = self.validate_data_columns(
                data_columns, min_itemsize)
            if len(data_columns):
                mgr = block_obj.reindex_axis(
                    Index(axis_labels).difference(Index(data_columns)),
                    axis=axis
                )._data

                blocks = list(mgr.blocks)
                blk_items = get_blk_items(mgr, blocks)
                for c in data_columns:
                    mgr = block_obj.reindex_axis([c], axis=axis)._data
                    blocks.extend(mgr.blocks)
                    blk_items.extend(get_blk_items(mgr, mgr.blocks))

        # reorder the blocks in the same order as the existing_table if we can
        if existing_table is not None:
            by_items = dict([(tuple(b_items.tolist()), (b, b_items))
                             for b, b_items in zip(blocks, blk_items)])
            new_blocks = []
            new_blk_items = []
            for ea in existing_table.values_axes:
                items = tuple(ea.values)
                try:
                    b, b_items = by_items.pop(items)
                    new_blocks.append(b)
                    new_blk_items.append(b_items)
                except:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "cannot match existing table structure for [%s] on "
                        "appending data" % ','.join(pprint_thing(item) for
                                                    item in items))
            blocks = new_blocks
            blk_items = new_blk_items

        # add my values
        self.values_axes = []
        for i, (b, b_items) in enumerate(zip(blocks, blk_items)):

            # shape of the data column are the indexable axes
            klass = DataCol
            name = None

            # we have a data_column
            if (data_columns and len(b_items) == 1 and
                    b_items[0] in data_columns):
                klass = DataIndexableCol
                name = b_items[0]
                self.data_columns.append(name)

            # make sure that we match up the existing columns
            # if we have an existing table
            if existing_table is not None and validate:
                try:
                    existing_col = existing_table.values_axes[i]
                except:
                    raise ValueError("Incompatible appended table [%s] with "
                                     "existing table [%s]"
                                     % (blocks, existing_table.values_axes))
            else:
                existing_col = None

            try:
                col = klass.create_for_block(
                    i=i, name=name, version=self.version)
                col.set_atom(block=b, block_items=b_items,
                             existing_col=existing_col,
                             min_itemsize=min_itemsize,
                             nan_rep=nan_rep,
                             encoding=self.encoding,
                             info=self.info,
                             **kwargs)
                col.set_pos(j)

                self.values_axes.append(col)
            except (NotImplementedError, ValueError, TypeError) as e:
                raise e
            except Exception as detail:
                raise Exception(
                    "cannot find the correct atom type -> "
                    "[dtype->%s,items->%s] %s"
                    % (b.dtype.name, b_items, str(detail))
                )
            j += 1

        # validate our min_itemsize
        self.validate_min_itemsize(min_itemsize)

        # validate our metadata
        self.validate_metadata(existing_table)

        # validate the axes if we have an existing table
        if validate:
            self.validate(existing_table)

    def process_axes(self, obj, columns=None):
        """ process axes filters """

        # make a copy to avoid side effects
        if columns is not None:
            columns = list(columns)

        # make sure to include levels if we have them
        if columns is not None and self.is_multi_index:
            for n in self.levels:
                if n not in columns:
                    columns.insert(0, n)

        # reorder by any non_index_axes & limit to the select columns
        for axis, labels in self.non_index_axes:
            obj = _reindex_axis(obj, axis, labels, columns)

        # apply the selection filters (but keep in the same order)
        if self.selection.filter is not None:
            for field, op, filt in self.selection.filter.format():

                def process_filter(field, filt):

                    for axis_name in obj._AXIS_NAMES.values():
                        axis_number = obj._get_axis_number(axis_name)
                        axis_values = obj._get_axis(axis_name)

                        # see if the field is the name of an axis
                        if field == axis_name:

                            # if we have a multi-index, then need to include
                            # the levels
                            if self.is_multi_index:
                                filt = filt.union(Index(self.levels))

                            takers = op(axis_values, filt)
                            return obj.loc._getitem_axis(takers,
                                                         axis=axis_number)

                        # this might be the name of a file IN an axis
                        elif field in axis_values:

                            # we need to filter on this dimension
                            values = _ensure_index(getattr(obj, field).values)
                            filt = _ensure_index(filt)

                            # hack until we support reversed dim flags
                            if isinstance(obj, DataFrame):
                                axis_number = 1 - axis_number
                            takers = op(values, filt)
                            return obj.loc._getitem_axis(takers,
                                                         axis=axis_number)

                    raise ValueError(
                        "cannot find the field [%s] for filtering!" % field)

                obj = process_filter(field, filt)

        return obj

    def create_description(self, complib=None, complevel=None,
                           fletcher32=False, expectedrows=None):
        """ create the description of the table from the axes & values """

        # provided expected rows if its passed
        if expectedrows is None:
            expectedrows = max(self.nrows_expected, 10000)

        d = dict(name='table', expectedrows=expectedrows)

        # description from the axes & values
        d['description'] = dict([(a.cname, a.typ) for a in self.axes])

        if complib:
            if complevel is None:
                complevel = self._complevel or 9
            filters = _tables().Filters(
                complevel=complevel, complib=complib,
                fletcher32=fletcher32 or self._fletcher32)
            d['filters'] = filters
        elif self._filters is not None:
            d['filters'] = self._filters

        return d

    def read_coordinates(self, where=None, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):
        """select coordinates (row numbers) from a table; return the
        coordinates object
        """

        # validate the version
        self.validate_version(where)

        # infer the data kind
        if not self.infer_axes():
            return False

        # create the selection
        self.selection = Selection(
            self, where=where, start=start, stop=stop, **kwargs)
        coords = self.selection.select_coords()
        if self.selection.filter is not None:
            for field, op, filt in self.selection.filter.format():
                data = self.read_column(
                    field, start=coords.min(), stop=coords.max() + 1)
                coords = coords[
                    op(data.iloc[coords - coords.min()], filt).values]

        return Index(coords)

    def read_column(self, column, where=None, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):
        """return a single column from the table, generally only indexables
        are interesting
        """

        # validate the version
        self.validate_version()

        # infer the data kind
        if not self.infer_axes():
            return False

        if where is not None:
            raise TypeError("read_column does not currently accept a where "
                            "clause")

        # find the axes
        for a in self.axes:
            if column == a.name:

                if not a.is_data_indexable:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "column [%s] can not be extracted individually; it is "
                        "not data indexable" % column)

                # column must be an indexable or a data column
                c = getattr(self.table.cols, column)
                a.set_info(self.info)
                return Series(_set_tz(a.convert(c[start:stop],
                                                nan_rep=self.nan_rep,
                                                encoding=self.encoding
                                                ).take_data(),
                                      a.tz, True), name=column)

        raise KeyError("column [%s] not found in the table" % column)


class WORMTable(Table):

    """ a write-once read-many table: this format DOES NOT ALLOW appending to a
         table. writing is a one-time operation the data are stored in a format
         that allows for searching the data on disk
         """
    table_type = u('worm')

    def read(self, **kwargs):
        """ read the indicies and the indexing array, calculate offset rows and
        return """
        raise NotImplementedError("WORMTable needs to implement read")

    def write(self, **kwargs):
        """ write in a format that we can search later on (but cannot append
               to): write out the indicies and the values using _write_array
               (e.g. a CArray) create an indexing table so that we can search
        """
        raise NotImplementedError("WORKTable needs to implement write")


class LegacyTable(Table):

    """ an appendable table: allow append/query/delete operations to a
          (possibily) already existing appendable table this table ALLOWS
          append (but doesn't require them), and stores the data in a format
          that can be easily searched

    """
    _indexables = [
        IndexCol(name='index', axis=1, pos=0),
        IndexCol(name='column', axis=2, pos=1, index_kind='columns_kind'),
        DataCol(name='fields', cname='values', kind_attr='fields', pos=2)
    ]
    table_type = u('legacy')
    ndim = 3

    def write(self, **kwargs):
        raise TypeError("write operations are not allowed on legacy tables!")

    def read(self, where=None, columns=None, **kwargs):
        """we have n indexable columns, with an arbitrary number of data
        axes
        """

        if not self.read_axes(where=where, **kwargs):
            return None

        lst_vals = [a.values for a in self.index_axes]
        labels, levels = _factorize_from_iterables(lst_vals)
        # labels and levels are tuples but lists are expected
        labels = list(labels)
        levels = list(levels)
        N = [len(lvl) for lvl in levels]

        # compute the key
        key = _factor_indexer(N[1:], labels)

        objs = []
        if len(unique(key)) == len(key):

            sorter, _ = algos.groupsort_indexer(
                _ensure_int64(key), np.prod(N))
            sorter = _ensure_platform_int(sorter)

            # create the objs
            for c in self.values_axes:

                # the data need to be sorted
                sorted_values = c.take_data().take(sorter, axis=0)
                if sorted_values.ndim == 1:
                    sorted_values = sorted_values.reshape(
                        (sorted_values.shape[0], 1))

                take_labels = [l.take(sorter) for l in labels]
                items = Index(c.values)
                block = _block2d_to_blocknd(
                    values=sorted_values, placement=np.arange(len(items)),
                    shape=tuple(N), labels=take_labels, ref_items=items)

                # create the object
                mgr = BlockManager([block], [items] + levels)
                obj = self.obj_type(mgr)

                # permute if needed
                if self.is_transposed:
                    obj = obj.transpose(
                        *tuple(Series(self.data_orientation).argsort()))

                objs.append(obj)

        else:
            warnings.warn(duplicate_doc, DuplicateWarning, stacklevel=5)

            # reconstruct
            long_index = MultiIndex.from_arrays(
                [i.values for i in self.index_axes])

            for c in self.values_axes:
                lp = DataFrame(c.data, index=long_index, columns=c.values)

                # need a better algorithm
                tuple_index = long_index.values

                unique_tuples = lib.fast_unique(tuple_index)
                unique_tuples = _asarray_tuplesafe(unique_tuples)

                indexer = match(unique_tuples, tuple_index)
                indexer = _ensure_platform_int(indexer)

                new_index = long_index.take(indexer)
                new_values = lp.values.take(indexer, axis=0)

                lp = DataFrame(new_values, index=new_index, columns=lp.columns)
                objs.append(lp.to_panel())

        # create the composite object
        if len(objs) == 1:
            wp = objs[0]
        else:
            wp = concat(objs, axis=0, verify_integrity=False)._consolidate()

        # apply the selection filters & axis orderings
        wp = self.process_axes(wp, columns=columns)

        return wp


class LegacyFrameTable(LegacyTable):

    """ support the legacy frame table """
    pandas_kind = u('frame_table')
    table_type = u('legacy_frame')
    obj_type = Panel

    def read(self, *args, **kwargs):
        return super(LegacyFrameTable, self).read(*args, **kwargs)['value']


class LegacyPanelTable(LegacyTable):

    """ support the legacy panel table """
    table_type = u('legacy_panel')
    obj_type = Panel


class AppendableTable(LegacyTable):

    """ suppor the new appendable table formats """
    _indexables = None
    table_type = u('appendable')

    def write(self, obj, axes=None, append=False, complib=None,
              complevel=None, fletcher32=None, min_itemsize=None,
              chunksize=None, expectedrows=None, dropna=False, **kwargs):

        if not append and self.is_exists:
            self._handle.remove_node(self.group, 'table')

        # create the axes
        self.create_axes(axes=axes, obj=obj, validate=append,
                         min_itemsize=min_itemsize,
                         **kwargs)

        for a in self.axes:
            a.validate(self, append)

        if not self.is_exists:

            # create the table
            options = self.create_description(complib=complib,
                                              complevel=complevel,
                                              fletcher32=fletcher32,
                                              expectedrows=expectedrows)

            # set the table attributes
            self.set_attrs()

            # create the table
            self._handle.create_table(self.group, **options)
        else:
            pass
            # table = self.table

        # update my info
        self.set_info()

        # validate the axes and set the kinds
        for a in self.axes:
            a.validate_and_set(self, append)

        # add the rows
        self.write_data(chunksize, dropna=dropna)

    def write_data(self, chunksize, dropna=False):
        """ we form the data into a 2-d including indexes,values,mask
            write chunk-by-chunk """

        names = self.dtype.names
        nrows = self.nrows_expected

        # if dropna==True, then drop ALL nan rows
        masks = []
        if dropna:

            for a in self.values_axes:

                # figure the mask: only do if we can successfully process this
                # column, otherwise ignore the mask
                mask = isnull(a.data).all(axis=0)
                if isinstance(mask, np.ndarray):
                    masks.append(mask.astype('u1', copy=False))

        # consolidate masks
        if len(masks):
            mask = masks[0]
            for m in masks[1:]:
                mask = mask & m
            mask = mask.ravel()
        else:
            mask = None

        # broadcast the indexes if needed
        indexes = [a.cvalues for a in self.index_axes]
        nindexes = len(indexes)
        bindexes = []
        for i, idx in enumerate(indexes):

            # broadcast to all other indexes except myself
            if i > 0 and i < nindexes:
                repeater = np.prod(
                    [indexes[bi].shape[0] for bi in range(0, i)])
                idx = np.tile(idx, repeater)

            if i < nindexes - 1:
                repeater = np.prod([indexes[bi].shape[0]
                                    for bi in range(i + 1, nindexes)])
                idx = np.repeat(idx, repeater)

            bindexes.append(idx)

        # transpose the values so first dimension is last
        # reshape the values if needed
        values = [a.take_data() for a in self.values_axes]
        values = [v.transpose(np.roll(np.arange(v.ndim), v.ndim - 1))
                  for v in values]
        bvalues = []
        for i, v in enumerate(values):
            new_shape = (nrows,) + self.dtype[names[nindexes + i]].shape
            bvalues.append(values[i].reshape(new_shape))

        # write the chunks
        if chunksize is None:
            chunksize = 100000

        rows = np.empty(min(chunksize, nrows), dtype=self.dtype)
        chunks = int(nrows / chunksize) + 1
        for i in range(chunks):
            start_i = i * chunksize
            end_i = min((i + 1) * chunksize, nrows)
            if start_i >= end_i:
                break

            self.write_data_chunk(
                rows,
                indexes=[a[start_i:end_i] for a in bindexes],
                mask=mask[start_i:end_i] if mask is not None else None,
                values=[v[start_i:end_i] for v in bvalues])

    def write_data_chunk(self, rows, indexes, mask, values):
        """
        Parameters
        ----------
        rows : an empty memory space where we are putting the chunk
        indexes : an array of the indexes
        mask : an array of the masks
        values : an array of the values
        """

        # 0 len
        for v in values:
            if not np.prod(v.shape):
                return

        try:
            nrows = indexes[0].shape[0]
            if nrows != len(rows):
                rows = np.empty(nrows, dtype=self.dtype)
            names = self.dtype.names
            nindexes = len(indexes)

            # indexes
            for i, idx in enumerate(indexes):
                rows[names[i]] = idx

            # values
            for i, v in enumerate(values):
                rows[names[i + nindexes]] = v

            # mask
            if mask is not None:
                m = ~mask.ravel().astype(bool, copy=False)
                if not m.all():
                    rows = rows[m]

        except Exception as detail:
            raise Exception("cannot create row-data -> %s" % detail)

        try:
            if len(rows):
                self.table.append(rows)
                self.table.flush()
        except Exception as detail:
            raise TypeError("tables cannot write this data -> %s" % detail)

    def delete(self, where=None, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):

        # delete all rows (and return the nrows)
        if where is None or not len(where):
            if start is None and stop is None:
                nrows = self.nrows
                self._handle.remove_node(self.group, recursive=True)
            else:
                # pytables<3.0 would remove a single row with stop=None
                if stop is None:
                    stop = self.nrows
                nrows = self.table.remove_rows(start=start, stop=stop)
                self.table.flush()
            return nrows

        # infer the data kind
        if not self.infer_axes():
            return None

        # create the selection
        table = self.table
        self.selection = Selection(
            self, where, start=start, stop=stop, **kwargs)
        values = self.selection.select_coords()

        # delete the rows in reverse order
        l = Series(values).sort_values()
        ln = len(l)

        if ln:

            # construct groups of consecutive rows
            diff = l.diff()
            groups = list(diff[diff > 1].index)

            # 1 group
            if not len(groups):
                groups = [0]

            # final element
            if groups[-1] != ln:
                groups.append(ln)

            # initial element
            if groups[0] != 0:
                groups.insert(0, 0)

            # we must remove in reverse order!
            pg = groups.pop()
            for g in reversed(groups):
                rows = l.take(lrange(g, pg))
                table.remove_rows(start=rows[rows.index[0]
                                             ], stop=rows[rows.index[-1]] + 1)
                pg = g

            self.table.flush()

        # return the number of rows removed
        return ln


class AppendableFrameTable(AppendableTable):

    """ suppor the new appendable table formats """
    pandas_kind = u('frame_table')
    table_type = u('appendable_frame')
    ndim = 2
    obj_type = DataFrame

    @property
    def is_transposed(self):
        return self.index_axes[0].axis == 1

    def get_object(self, obj):
        """ these are written transposed """
        if self.is_transposed:
            obj = obj.T
        return obj

    def read(self, where=None, columns=None, **kwargs):

        if not self.read_axes(where=where, **kwargs):
            return None

        info = (self.info.get(self.non_index_axes[0][0], dict())
                if len(self.non_index_axes) else dict())
        index = self.index_axes[0].values
        frames = []
        for a in self.values_axes:

            # we could have a multi-index constructor here
            # _ensure_index doesn't recognized our list-of-tuples here
            if info.get('type') == 'MultiIndex':
                cols = MultiIndex.from_tuples(a.values)
            else:
                cols = Index(a.values)
            names = info.get('names')
            if names is not None:
                cols.set_names(names, inplace=True)

            if self.is_transposed:
                values = a.cvalues
                index_ = cols
                cols_ = Index(index, name=getattr(index, 'name', None))
            else:
                values = a.cvalues.T
                index_ = Index(index, name=getattr(index, 'name', None))
                cols_ = cols

            # if we have a DataIndexableCol, its shape will only be 1 dim
            if values.ndim == 1 and isinstance(values, np.ndarray):
                values = values.reshape((1, values.shape[0]))

            block = make_block(values, placement=np.arange(len(cols_)))
            mgr = BlockManager([block], [cols_, index_])
            frames.append(DataFrame(mgr))

        if len(frames) == 1:
            df = frames[0]
        else:
            df = concat(frames, axis=1)

        # apply the selection filters & axis orderings
        df = self.process_axes(df, columns=columns)

        return df


class AppendableSeriesTable(AppendableFrameTable):
    """ support the new appendable table formats """
    pandas_kind = u('series_table')
    table_type = u('appendable_series')
    ndim = 2
    obj_type = Series
    storage_obj_type = DataFrame

    @property
    def is_transposed(self):
        return False

    def get_object(self, obj):
        return obj

    def write(self, obj, data_columns=None, **kwargs):
        """ we are going to write this as a frame table """
        if not isinstance(obj, DataFrame):
            name = obj.name or 'values'
            obj = DataFrame({name: obj}, index=obj.index)
            obj.columns = [name]
        return super(AppendableSeriesTable, self).write(
            obj=obj, data_columns=obj.columns.tolist(), **kwargs)

    def read(self, columns=None, **kwargs):

        is_multi_index = self.is_multi_index
        if columns is not None and is_multi_index:
            for n in self.levels:
                if n not in columns:
                    columns.insert(0, n)
        s = super(AppendableSeriesTable, self).read(columns=columns, **kwargs)
        if is_multi_index:
            s.set_index(self.levels, inplace=True)

        s = s.iloc[:, 0]

        # remove the default name
        if s.name == 'values':
            s.name = None
        return s


class AppendableMultiSeriesTable(AppendableSeriesTable):
    """ support the new appendable table formats """
    pandas_kind = u('series_table')
    table_type = u('appendable_multiseries')

    def write(self, obj, **kwargs):
        """ we are going to write this as a frame table """
        name = obj.name or 'values'
        obj, self.levels = self.validate_multiindex(obj)
        cols = list(self.levels)
        cols.append(name)
        obj.columns = cols
        return super(AppendableMultiSeriesTable, self).write(obj=obj, **kwargs)


class GenericTable(AppendableFrameTable):
    """ a table that read/writes the generic pytables table format """
    pandas_kind = u('frame_table')
    table_type = u('generic_table')
    ndim = 2
    obj_type = DataFrame

    @property
    def pandas_type(self):
        return self.pandas_kind

    @property
    def storable(self):
        return getattr(self.group, 'table', None) or self.group

    def get_attrs(self):
        """ retrieve our attributes """
        self.non_index_axes = []
        self.nan_rep = None
        self.levels = []

        self.index_axes = [a.infer(self)
                           for a in self.indexables if a.is_an_indexable]
        self.values_axes = [a.infer(self)
                            for a in self.indexables if not a.is_an_indexable]
        self.data_columns = [a.name for a in self.values_axes]

    @property
    def indexables(self):
        """ create the indexables from the table description """
        if self._indexables is None:

            d = self.description

            # the index columns is just a simple index
            self._indexables = [GenericIndexCol(name='index', axis=0)]

            for i, n in enumerate(d._v_names):

                dc = GenericDataIndexableCol(
                    name=n, pos=i, values=[n], version=self.version)
                self._indexables.append(dc)

        return self._indexables

    def write(self, **kwargs):
        raise NotImplementedError("cannot write on an generic table")


class AppendableMultiFrameTable(AppendableFrameTable):

    """ a frame with a multi-index """
    table_type = u('appendable_multiframe')
    obj_type = DataFrame
    ndim = 2
    _re_levels = re.compile("^level_\d+$")

    @property
    def table_type_short(self):
        return u('appendable_multi')

    def write(self, obj, data_columns=None, **kwargs):
        if data_columns is None:
            data_columns = []
        elif data_columns is True:
            data_columns = obj.columns.tolist()
        obj, self.levels = self.validate_multiindex(obj)
        for n in self.levels:
            if n not in data_columns:
                data_columns.insert(0, n)
        return super(AppendableMultiFrameTable, self).write(
            obj=obj, data_columns=data_columns, **kwargs)

    def read(self, **kwargs):

        df = super(AppendableMultiFrameTable, self).read(**kwargs)
        df = df.set_index(self.levels)

        # remove names for 'level_%d'
        df.index = df.index.set_names([
            None if self._re_levels.search(l) else l for l in df.index.names
        ])

        return df


class AppendablePanelTable(AppendableTable):

    """ suppor the new appendable table formats """
    table_type = u('appendable_panel')
    ndim = 3
    obj_type = Panel

    def get_object(self, obj):
        """ these are written transposed """
        if self.is_transposed:
            obj = obj.transpose(*self.data_orientation)
        return obj

    @property
    def is_transposed(self):
        return self.data_orientation != tuple(range(self.ndim))


class AppendableNDimTable(AppendablePanelTable):

    """ suppor the new appendable table formats """
    table_type = u('appendable_ndim')
    ndim = 4
    obj_type = Panel4D


def _reindex_axis(obj, axis, labels, other=None):
    ax = obj._get_axis(axis)
    labels = _ensure_index(labels)

    # try not to reindex even if other is provided
    # if it equals our current index
    if other is not None:
        other = _ensure_index(other)
    if (other is None or labels.equals(other)) and labels.equals(ax):
        return obj

    labels = _ensure_index(labels.unique())
    if other is not None:
        labels = _ensure_index(other.unique()) & labels
    if not labels.equals(ax):
        slicer = [slice(None, None)] * obj.ndim
        slicer[axis] = labels
        obj = obj.loc[tuple(slicer)]
    return obj


def _get_info(info, name):
    """ get/create the info for this name """
    try:
        idx = info[name]
    except:
        idx = info[name] = dict()
    return idx

# tz to/from coercion


def _get_tz(tz):
    """ for a tz-aware type, return an encoded zone """
    zone = tslib.get_timezone(tz)
    if zone is None:
        zone = tslib.tot_seconds(tz.utcoffset())
    return zone


def _set_tz(values, tz, preserve_UTC=False, coerce=False):
    """
    coerce the values to a DatetimeIndex if tz is set
    preserve the input shape if possible

    Parameters
    ----------
    values : ndarray
    tz : string/pickled tz object
    preserve_UTC : boolean,
        preserve the UTC of the result
    coerce : if we do not have a passed timezone, coerce to M8[ns] ndarray
    """
    if tz is not None:
        name = getattr(values, 'name', None)
        values = values.ravel()
        tz = tslib.get_timezone(_ensure_decoded(tz))
        values = DatetimeIndex(values, name=name)
        if values.tz is None:
            values = values.tz_localize('UTC').tz_convert(tz)
        if preserve_UTC:
            if tz == 'UTC':
                values = list(values)
    elif coerce:
        values = np.asarray(values, dtype='M8[ns]')

    return values


def _convert_index(index, encoding=None, format_type=None):
    index_name = getattr(index, 'name', None)

    if isinstance(index, DatetimeIndex):
        converted = index.asi8
        return IndexCol(converted, 'datetime64', _tables().Int64Col(),
                        freq=getattr(index, 'freq', None),
                        tz=getattr(index, 'tz', None),
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif isinstance(index, TimedeltaIndex):
        converted = index.asi8
        return IndexCol(converted, 'timedelta64', _tables().Int64Col(),
                        freq=getattr(index, 'freq', None),
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif isinstance(index, (Int64Index, PeriodIndex)):
        atom = _tables().Int64Col()
        # avoid to store ndarray of Period objects
        return IndexCol(index._values, 'integer', atom,
                        freq=getattr(index, 'freq', None),
                        index_name=index_name)

    if isinstance(index, MultiIndex):
        raise TypeError('MultiIndex not supported here!')

    inferred_type = lib.infer_dtype(index)

    values = np.asarray(index)

    if inferred_type == 'datetime64':
        converted = values.view('i8')
        return IndexCol(converted, 'datetime64', _tables().Int64Col(),
                        freq=getattr(index, 'freq', None),
                        tz=getattr(index, 'tz', None),
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif inferred_type == 'timedelta64':
        converted = values.view('i8')
        return IndexCol(converted, 'timedelta64', _tables().Int64Col(),
                        freq=getattr(index, 'freq', None),
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif inferred_type == 'datetime':
        converted = np.asarray([(time.mktime(v.timetuple()) +
                                 v.microsecond / 1E6) for v in values],
                               dtype=np.float64)
        return IndexCol(converted, 'datetime', _tables().Time64Col(),
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif inferred_type == 'date':
        converted = np.asarray([v.toordinal() for v in values],
                               dtype=np.int32)
        return IndexCol(converted, 'date', _tables().Time32Col(),
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif inferred_type == 'string':
        # atom = _tables().ObjectAtom()
        # return np.asarray(values, dtype='O'), 'object', atom

        converted = _convert_string_array(values, encoding)
        itemsize = converted.dtype.itemsize
        return IndexCol(
            converted, 'string', _tables().StringCol(itemsize),
            itemsize=itemsize, index_name=index_name
        )
    elif inferred_type == 'unicode':
        if format_type == 'fixed':
            atom = _tables().ObjectAtom()
            return IndexCol(np.asarray(values, dtype='O'), 'object', atom,
                            index_name=index_name)
        raise TypeError(
            "[unicode] is not supported as a in index type for [{0}] formats"
            .format(format_type)
        )

    elif inferred_type == 'integer':
        # take a guess for now, hope the values fit
        atom = _tables().Int64Col()
        return IndexCol(np.asarray(values, dtype=np.int64), 'integer', atom,
                        index_name=index_name)
    elif inferred_type == 'floating':
        atom = _tables().Float64Col()
        return IndexCol(np.asarray(values, dtype=np.float64), 'float', atom,
                        index_name=index_name)
    else:  # pragma: no cover
        atom = _tables().ObjectAtom()
        return IndexCol(np.asarray(values, dtype='O'), 'object', atom,
                        index_name=index_name)


def _unconvert_index(data, kind, encoding=None):
    kind = _ensure_decoded(kind)
    if kind == u('datetime64'):
        index = DatetimeIndex(data)
    elif kind == u('timedelta64'):
        index = TimedeltaIndex(data)
    elif kind == u('datetime'):
        index = np.asarray([datetime.fromtimestamp(v) for v in data],
                           dtype=object)
    elif kind == u('date'):
        try:
            index = np.asarray(
                [date.fromordinal(v) for v in data], dtype=object)
        except (ValueError):
            index = np.asarray(
                [date.fromtimestamp(v) for v in data], dtype=object)
    elif kind in (u('integer'), u('float')):
        index = np.asarray(data)
    elif kind in (u('string')):
        index = _unconvert_string_array(data, nan_rep=None, encoding=encoding)
    elif kind == u('object'):
        index = np.asarray(data[0])
    else:  # pragma: no cover
        raise ValueError('unrecognized index type %s' % kind)
    return index


def _unconvert_index_legacy(data, kind, legacy=False, encoding=None):
    kind = _ensure_decoded(kind)
    if kind == u('datetime'):
        index = lib.time64_to_datetime(data)
    elif kind in (u('integer')):
        index = np.asarray(data, dtype=object)
    elif kind in (u('string')):
        index = _unconvert_string_array(data, nan_rep=None, encoding=encoding)
    else:  # pragma: no cover
        raise ValueError('unrecognized index type %s' % kind)
    return index


def _convert_string_array(data, encoding, itemsize=None):
    """
    we take a string-like that is object dtype and coerce to a fixed size
    string type

    Parameters
    ----------
    data : a numpy array of object dtype
    encoding : None or string-encoding
    itemsize : integer, optional, defaults to the max length of the strings

    Returns
    -------
    data in a fixed-length string dtype, encoded to bytes if needed
    """

    # encode if needed
    if encoding is not None and len(data):
        data = Series(data.ravel()).str.encode(
            encoding).values.reshape(data.shape)

    # create the sized dtype
    if itemsize is None:
        itemsize = lib.max_len_string_array(_ensure_object(data.ravel()))

    data = np.asarray(data, dtype="S%d" % itemsize)
    return data


def _unconvert_string_array(data, nan_rep=None, encoding=None):
    """
    inverse of _convert_string_array

    Parameters
    ----------
    data : fixed length string dtyped array
    nan_rep : the storage repr of NaN, optional
    encoding : the encoding of the data, optional

    Returns
    -------
    an object array of the decoded data

    """
    shape = data.shape
    data = np.asarray(data.ravel(), dtype=object)

    # guard against a None encoding in PY3 (because of a legacy
    # where the passed encoding is actually None)
    encoding = _ensure_encoding(encoding)
    if encoding is not None and len(data):

        itemsize = lib.max_len_string_array(_ensure_object(data))
        if compat.PY3:
            dtype = "U{0}".format(itemsize)
        else:
            dtype = "S{0}".format(itemsize)

        if isinstance(data[0], compat.binary_type):
            data = Series(data).str.decode(encoding).values
        else:
            data = data.astype(dtype, copy=False).astype(object, copy=False)

    if nan_rep is None:
        nan_rep = 'nan'

    data = lib.string_array_replace_from_nan_rep(data, nan_rep)
    return data.reshape(shape)


def _maybe_convert(values, val_kind, encoding):
    if _need_convert(val_kind):
        conv = _get_converter(val_kind, encoding)
        # conv = np.frompyfunc(conv, 1, 1)
        values = conv(values)
    return values


def _get_converter(kind, encoding):
    kind = _ensure_decoded(kind)
    if kind == 'datetime64':
        return lambda x: np.asarray(x, dtype='M8[ns]')
    elif kind == 'datetime':
        return lib.convert_timestamps
    elif kind == 'string':
        return lambda x: _unconvert_string_array(x, encoding=encoding)
    else:  # pragma: no cover
        raise ValueError('invalid kind %s' % kind)


def _need_convert(kind):
    kind = _ensure_decoded(kind)
    if kind in (u('datetime'), u('datetime64'), u('string')):
        return True
    return False


class Selection(object):

    """
    Carries out a selection operation on a tables.Table object.

    Parameters
    ----------
    table : a Table object
    where : list of Terms (or convertable to)
    start, stop: indicies to start and/or stop selection

    """

    def __init__(self, table, where=None, start=None, stop=None, **kwargs):
        self.table = table
        self.where = where
        self.start = start
        self.stop = stop
        self.condition = None
        self.filter = None
        self.terms = None
        self.coordinates = None

        if is_list_like(where):

            # see if we have a passed coordinate like
            try:
                inferred = lib.infer_dtype(where)
                if inferred == 'integer' or inferred == 'boolean':
                    where = np.asarray(where)
                    if where.dtype == np.bool_:
                        start, stop = self.start, self.stop
                        if start is None:
                            start = 0
                        if stop is None:
                            stop = self.table.nrows
                        self.coordinates = np.arange(start, stop)[where]
                    elif issubclass(where.dtype.type, np.integer):
                        if ((self.start is not None and
                                (where < self.start).any()) or
                            (self.stop is not None and
                                (where >= self.stop).any())):
                            raise ValueError(
                                "where must have index locations >= start and "
                                "< stop"
                            )
                        self.coordinates = where

            except:
                pass

        if self.coordinates is None:

            self.terms = self.generate(where)

            # create the numexpr & the filter
            if self.terms is not None:
                self.condition, self.filter = self.terms.evaluate()

    def generate(self, where):
        """ where can be a : dict,list,tuple,string """
        if where is None:
            return None

        q = self.table.queryables()
        try:
            return Expr(where, queryables=q, encoding=self.table.encoding)
        except NameError:
            # raise a nice message, suggesting that the user should use
            # data_columns
            raise ValueError(
                "The passed where expression: {0}\n"
                "            contains an invalid variable reference\n"
                "            all of the variable refrences must be a "
                "reference to\n"
                "            an axis (e.g. 'index' or 'columns'), or a "
                "data_column\n"
                "            The currently defined references are: {1}\n"
                .format(where, ','.join(q.keys()))
            )

    def select(self):
        """
        generate the selection
        """
        if self.condition is not None:
            return self.table.table.read_where(self.condition.format(),
                                               start=self.start,
                                               stop=self.stop)
        elif self.coordinates is not None:
            return self.table.table.read_coordinates(self.coordinates)
        return self.table.table.read(start=self.start, stop=self.stop)

    def select_coords(self):
        """
        generate the selection
        """
        start, stop = self.start, self.stop
        nrows = self.table.nrows
        if start is None:
            start = 0
        elif start < 0:
            start += nrows
        if self.stop is None:
            stop = nrows
        elif stop < 0:
            stop += nrows

        if self.condition is not None:
            return self.table.table.get_where_list(self.condition.format(),
                                                   start=start, stop=stop,
                                                   sort=True)
        elif self.coordinates is not None:
            return self.coordinates

        return np.arange(start, stop)

# utilities ###


def timeit(key, df, fn=None, remove=True, **kwargs):
    if fn is None:
        fn = 'timeit.h5'
    store = HDFStore(fn, mode='w')
    store.append(key, df, **kwargs)
    store.close()

    if remove:
        os.remove(fn)