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+"""
+Project Euler Problem 301: https://projecteuler.net/problem=301
+
+Problem Statement:
+Nim is a game played with heaps of stones, where two players take
+it in turn to remove any number of stones from any heap until no stones remain.
+
+We'll consider the three-heap normal-play version of
+Nim, which works as follows:
+- At the start of the game there are three heaps of stones.
+- On each player's turn, the player may remove any positive
+  number of stones from any single heap.
+- The first player unable to move (because no stones remain) loses.
+
+If (n1, n2, n3) indicates a Nim position consisting of heaps of size
+n1, n2, and n3, then there is a simple function, which you may look up
+or attempt to deduce for yourself, X(n1, n2, n3) that returns:
+- zero if, with perfect strategy, the player about to
+  move will eventually lose; or
+- non-zero if, with perfect strategy, the player about
+  to move will eventually win.
+
+For example X(1,2,3) = 0 because, no matter what the current player does,
+the opponent can respond with a move that leaves two heaps of equal size,
+at which point every move by the current player can be mirrored by the
+opponent until no stones remain; so the current player loses. To illustrate:
+- current player moves to (1,2,1)
+- opponent moves to (1,0,1)
+- current player moves to (0,0,1)
+- opponent moves to (0,0,0), and so wins.
+
+For how many positive integers n <= 2^30 does X(n,2n,3n) = 0?
+
+References:
+  = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nim
+"""
+
+
+def solution(exponent: int = 30) -> int:
+    """
+    For any given exponent x >= 0, 1 <= n <= 2^x.
+    This function returns how many Nim games are lost given that
+    each Nim game has three heaps of the form (n, 2*n, 3*n).
+    >>> solution(0)
+    1
+    >>> solution(2)
+    3
+    >>> solution(10)
+    144
+    """
+
+    # Following the reference from wikipedia, one can come to the conclusion that
+    # this problem boils down finding count of numbers `n` satisfying
+    #   - F(n): XOR(n, XOR(2 * n, 3 * n)) == 0
+    #
+    # Naively searching for `n` satisfying the above equation is too slow however
+    # there's a clever observation that can be made.
+    #
+    # A number `n` satisfies this equality if none of its 1-bits are adjacent.
+    # Our new problem can be defined as
+    #   - G(m): number of numbers with non-adjacent 1-bits up to 2^m
+    #
+    # The problem reduces to a simple counting problem where Dynamic Programming
+    # can be applied.
+    #
+    # Define `dp[i][bit]` as the number of numbers satisfying G when `bit`'th bit
+    # is set to `i`
+    #   - `i`: {0, 1}
+    #   - `bit`: {0, 1, ..., max_bits}
+    #
+    # Example:
+    # - `dp[0][4]`: number of numbers satisfying F when 4'th bit is set to 0
+    # - `dp[1][3]`: number of numbers satisfying F when 3'rd bit is set to 1
+
+    dp = [[0] * (exponent + 1) for _ in range(2)]
+
+    # Base Cases
+    dp[0][0] = 1
+    dp[1][0] = 0
+
+    # Transitions
+    for bit in range(1, exponent + 1):
+        dp[0][bit] = dp[0][bit - 1] + dp[1][bit - 1]
+        dp[1][bit] = dp[0][bit - 1]
+
+    return dp[0][-1] + dp[1][-1]
+
+    # The code above can be optimized to not allocate extra memory at all
+    # dp0: int = 1
+    # dp1: int = 1
+    # for bit in range(1, exponent + 1):
+    #     dp0, dp1 = dp0 + dp1, dp0
+    # return dp0 + dp1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(f"{solution() = }")